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CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE:  THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES

  If you met Christopher Marlowe, you might not like him.  But
you would probably be fascinated by him.  Marlowe was a fiery
genius whose brief career resembled the trail of a meteor across
the night sky.

  Marlowe was not just a writer.  A hot-headed swordsman, he
was arrested twice for street fighting and spent some weeks in
prison for his role in a fatal duel.  He was also a spy,
involved in a dangerous, though not fully understood, ring of
secret agents.

  At one extreme, Marlowe was a social climber who hobnobbed
with the rich and powerful of his day.  He was friend to Sir
Francis Walsingham, head of the government's secret service.
And he knew Sir Walter Raleigh, Queen Elizabeth's favorite at
court.  At the other extreme, Marlowe had a taste for London low
life.  He haunted the taverns till dawn in the company of
thieves and confidence men.

  Marlowe combined a thirst for adventure with wildly
speculative opinions.  In Elizabethan times, when church
attendance was strictly enforced by law, Marlowe was an atheist.
Like Faustus, he scoffed openly at established beliefs.  He
called the biblical Moses "a juggler," or second-rate magician,
and referred to Christ as a not-so-pious fraud.

  Not surprisingly, when Marlowe died at 29--stabbed through
the eye in a tavern brawl--many people saw in his fate the hand
of an angry God.  But let's start at the beginning.

  Marlowe was born in 1564, two months before William
Shakespeare, in the cathedral town of Canterbury.  He was a
shoemaker's son and, in the normal course of events, would have
taken up his father's trade.  Destiny intervened, however, in
the form of a college scholarship.  In the sixteenth century,
even more than in the present day, college was a way out of a
laborer's life.  It opened up the path of advancement,
presumably within the church.

  Today, we think of education as a universal right.  But in
those days, it was a privilege.  The ability to read--which
meant the ability to read Latin--was still a rare
accomplishment.  In fact, under English common law, any man who
could read was considered a priest and could claim, if arrested,
a right called "benefit of clergy." That meant, if you killed a
man and could read, you might go free with a warning.  But if
you killed a man and couldn't read, you were sure to swing from
the gallows.

  In the sixteenth century, as you will see in Doctor Faustus,
there was still something magical about books and people who
could read them.  That's why, when Marlowe was offered a
scholarship by the Archbishop of Canterbury, he probably jumped
at the chance.  In 1581 the promising youth left home to attend
Cambridge University.

  Cambridge fed Marlowe's hungry mind, even while it vexed his
spirit.  The university library was one of the world's finest.
Good books were still scarce and expensive.  The shoemaker's
household would have had its Bible and some collections of
sermons.  But the Cambridge library shelves were lined with
leather-bound classics, those works of ancient Greece and Rome
that the Renaissance found so illuminating.  Aristotle's studies
of Nature, Homer's magnificent epics, the Roman poet Ovid's
frank celebrations of love--they were all there, and Marlowe
read them avidly along with maps that showed him the exotic
places of the world.

  The books and the library were part of the luxury offered by
Cambridge.  But there was an oppressive side, too, to university
life.  Cambridge in those years was a training ground for the
ministry, its graduates destined to be clergymen or
schoolmasters.  Piety and sobriety were the virtues promoted in
its cold stone halls.  Cambridge scholars slept in communal
dormitories, took their bread at the buttery (a sort of feudal
cafeteria), and wore, by regulation, simple wool caps and gowns.
Innocent pastimes like swimming were forbidden and subject to
severe punishment.  In short, despite occasional high-jinks, the
lives of the students were not so different from those of
medieval monks.

  There was a basic contradiction in all this, a contradiction
that lies at the heart of Doctor Faustus.  The classics which
these young men were reading beckoned them toward the world and
the pleasures of the senses.  But to stay at Cambridge and to
study these books, the young men had to appear to be devout
ministers-in-training.  As Faustus puts it, they were "divines
in show."

  A whole generation broke under the strain.  They fled the
Cambridge cloister and descended on London to earn a precarious
living by writing.  These were the so-called University Wits.
And Marlowe would soon join them, for he, too, was in rebellion
against the religious demands of Cambridge.

  While studying for his master's degree, Marlowe wrote plays
in secret (plays were viewed as the devil's work by the church),
and he became involved in some colorful espionage activities.
In a flagrant breach of the rules, Marlowe stayed absent for
months at a time, traveling on the Continent on some deep
business of the Privy Council's.  (The Privy Council was a body
of advisors to the queen, a sort of unofficial Cabinet.)

  The Cambridge authorities moved to expel Marlowe, but a
grateful government intervened.  The university dons, their arms
gently twisted by the Privy Council, awarded Marlowe the highly
respected Master of Arts degree in 1587.  With two university
degrees (a bachelor's and a master's) under his belt, the
shoemaker's son was entitled to style himself Christopher
Marlowe, gentleman.  No small matter in class-conscious England,
then or now.

  His studies behind him, Marlowe left for London, where he
joined the circle of bright and ambitious university renegades:
Thomas Nashe, John Lyly, Robert Greene.  Marlowe and the rest
headed for the theater with a sense of exhilaration.  In London
of the 1580s, the drama was just springing to life.

  The first theaters were being built--the Curtain, the
Rose--legitimate places for plays that had previously been
performed in innyards.  The first acting companies were being
formed--the Lord Admiral's Men, the Lord Chamberlain's Men--as
the players, frowned upon by the church, sought the service and
protection of the great lords.

  Marlowe, an innovator, thrived in this stimulating
environment.  He threw himself into the new theater with
enthusiasm.  He took lodgings in Shoreditch, the theatrical
district on the outskirts of town, and roomed for a while with
Thomas Kyd, the author of the popular Spanish Tragedy.  Marlowe
worked for the hard-headed theater owner, Philip Henslowe, and
wrote plays for the Lord Admiral's Men and their great star,
Edward Alleyn.  In the process, Marlowe's fertile brain and
fiery spirit helped give shape and form to what we now call
Elizabethan drama.

  The main gift Marlowe gave to the theater was its language.
As you probably know from your study of Shakespeare, Elizabethan
playwrights wrote in blank verse or iambic pentameter.  (Iambic
pentameter meant that the verse line had five feet, each
composed of a weak and a strong syllable.) Marlowe didn't invent
blank verse, but he took a form that had been stilted and dull
and he breathed fresh life and energy into it.  It was Marlowe
who made blank verse a supple and expressive dramatic
instrument.

  When Marlowe arrived in London, he took the theatrical world
by storm.  He was new to the stage, but within months, he was
its master.  He was admired, imitated, and envied, as only the
wildly successful can be.

  His first play was Tamburlaine (1587), the tale of a Scythian
shepherd who took to the sword and carved out a vast empire.
Audiences held their breath as Tamburlaine rolled across stage
in a chariot drawn by kings he had beaten in battle.
Tamburlaine cracked his whip and cried, "Hola, ye pampered jades
of Asia!" (Jades meant both worn-out horses and luxury-satiated
monarchs.) This was electrifying stuff which packed the theaters
and made ruthless conquerors the rage of London.

  Marlowe had a terrific box-office sense, and he kept on
writing hits as fast as his company could stage them.  In 1588
came Tamburlaine II and then, probably in 1591, The Jew of
Malta, the story of a merchant as greedy for riches as
Tamburlaine was for crowns.  Gold wasn't good enough for the Jew
of Malta.  That merchant longed for priceless gems and
unimaginable wealth.  No warrior, the Jew of Malta's weapons in
his battle with life were policy and guile.  He set a new style
in dramatic characters, the Machiavellian villain.  (These
villains were named for Nicholas Machiavelli, the Italian author
of a cynical guide for princes.)

  Faustus was either Marlowe's second or last tragic hero.
Some scholars believe Doctor Faustus was written in 1590, before
The Jew of Malta.  Others date the play from 1592, the last year
of Marlowe's life.  In either case, Faustus completed the circle
of heroes with superhuman aspirations.  Where Tamburlaine sought
endless rule, and the Jew of Malta fabulous wealth, Faustus
pursued limitless knowledge.

  Like Tamburlaine, Faustus had a powerful impact on
Elizabethan theatergoers.  For audiences who flocked to see him,
Marlowe's black magician combined the incredible powers of
Merlin with the spine-chilling evil of Dracula.  We know the
thrill of horror that swept through spectators of Doctor Faustus
since there are records of performances called to a halt, when
the startled citizens of London thought they saw a real devil on
stage.

  Marlowe's tragic heroes share a sense of high destiny, an
exuberant optimism, and a fierce unscrupulousness in gaining
their ends.  They've been called "overreachers" because of their
refusal to accept human limitations.  Humbly born, all of
Marlowe's tragic heroes climb to lofty heights before they die
or are humbled by the Wheel of Fortune.

  Did Marlowe share the vaulting ambitions of his characters,
their lust for power, riches, and knowledge?  In dealing with a
dramatist who wears a mask, it's always dangerous to make
assumptions.  But the slim facts and plentiful rumors that
survive about Marlowe suggest a fire-eating rebel who was not
about to let tradition stand in his way.

  All his life, Marlowe thumbed his nose at convention.
Expected to be first a cobbler, then a clergyman, he defied
expectations and chose instead the glamorous world of the
theater.  Lacking wealth and a title--the passports to high
society--he nevertheless moved in brilliant, aristocratic
circles.  In the shedding of humble origins, in the upward
thrust of his life, Marlowe was very much a Renaissance man.

  Free of the restraints of Cambridge, Marlowe emerged in
London as a religious subversive.  There are hints of forbidden
pleasures ("All that love not tobacco and boys were fools," he
quipped) and more than hints of iconoclasm.  Marlowe is said to
have joined a circle of free-thinkers known as the School of
Night.  This group, which revolved around Sir Walter Raleigh,
indulged in indiscreet philosophic discussion and allegedly in
blasphemies concerning the name of God.

  Marlowe was blasted from the pulpit, and eventually his
unorthodoxy landed him in trouble with the secular authorities.
In 1593 he was summoned before the Privy Council, presumably on
charges of atheism.  (In Elizabethan times, atheism was a state
offense with treasonous overtones.) Though Marlowe's death
forestalled the inquiry, the furor was just beginning.

  Two days after Marlowe was killed, an informer named Richard
Baines submitted to the authorities a document concerning
Marlowe's "damnable judgment of religion." Baines attributed
eighteen statements to Marlowe, some attacking Jesus, others the
Bible and the church.  A sample comment of Marlowe's was that
"if the Jews, among whom Christ was born, crucified him, they
knew him best." By implication, they knew what he deserved.  The
document ends with Baines' charge that Marlowe failed to keep
his outrageous opinions to himself, touting them all over
London.  In addition, Marlowe's sometime roommate, Thomas Kyd,
who was also arrested and tortured, accused Marlowe of having
written atheistic tracts that were found in Kyd's possession,
when his house was searched.

  The evidence against Marlowe is suspect or hearsay.  But with
so much smoke, there may have been fire.  Some scholars think
that Marlowe leapt at the Faustus story because it gave him a
chance to vent his godless beliefs under cover of a play with a
safe moral ending.  Yet other scholars point to the damnation of
Faustus as evidence that Marlowe was moving away from
atheism--indeed, that he was moving toward Christianity, even
though he never quite arrived there.  Was Marlowe beginning to
be frightened by his audacity?  Was he mellowing with the
approach of middle age?  Or was God-defiance and a youthful
faith in glorious human possibility simply his life-long
credo?

  These questions have no answers, for Marlowe's life and
writing career were cut short in May 1593.  After spending a day
closeted with secret agents in a Deptford tavern, Marlowe
quarreled with one of them--Ingram Friser--over the bill.
Marlowe pulled out a dagger and hit Friser over the head with
its flat end.  In the ensuing scuffle, Friser got hold of the
dagger and thrust its point deep into Marlowe's eye.  The
playwright died of brain injuries three days later, "died
swearing" according to the gratified London preachers.

  We can only speculate as to what heights Marlowe might have
climbed as a dramatist, had he lived.  He spent six
astonishingly productive years in London.  Had Shakespeare, his
contemporary, died at the same age, he would have written very
few of the plays for which he is loved today.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE PLOT

  If you are interested in the world of the occult, you'll like
this play.  Doctor Faustus is a drama about a famous scholar who
sells his soul to the devil in exchange for magical powers.  It
is a play which has come down to us over the centuries in two
different versions (see the beginning of the section on The
Story).  Events found in the 1616 text, but missing from the
1604, are marked here with an asterisk (*).

  In Doctor Faustus, as in many Elizabethan plays, the main
plot centers on the tragic hero, while a subplot offers comic
relief.

  Dr.  John Faustus, the renowned scholar of Wittenberg, has
closeted himself in his study to decide his future career.  Law,
medicine, theology--he has mastered them all.  And he finds them
all dissatisfying.

  Faustus wants a career to match the scope of his ambition, a
subject to challenge his enormous intellect.  So he turns to
necromancy, or black magic, which seems to offer him godlike
powers.  He knows, however, that it involves forbidden traffic
with demons.

  Faustus summons Valdes and Cornelius, two accomplished
magicians, to instruct him in the art of conjuring.  That night,
in the midst of a crashing thunderstorm, Faustus raises up the
demon spirit, Mephistophilis.  Faustus proposes a bargain.  He
will give his immortal soul to the devil in exchange for
twenty-four years of magic and merry-making.

  Mephistophilis procrastinates.  Reconsider, he advises
Faustus.  You really don't know what you are getting into.
Besides, Mephistophilis does not have the power to conclude such
an agreement.  He is only a servant to Lucifer, the prince of
hell.  Faustus orders him to speak with Lucifer, so
Mephistophilis quickly flies off to the nether regions.

  While waiting for the spirit to return, Faustus has second
thoughts.  Is it too late to pull back from the abyss?  Never
too late, counsels the Good Angel, who suddenly appears before
Faustus' eyes.  Too late, whispers the Evil Angel, who advises
Faustus to think of fame and wealth.  Wealth!  The very word
makes Faustus catch fire.  Hesitation flies out the window as
Mephistophilis flies in with Lucifer's reply.

  The prince of hell will grant Faustus' wish, provided that
Faustus sign over his soul in a deed of gift.  Lucifer wants a
contract to make sure he isn't cheated.  The contract must be
written in Faustus' own blood.

  In compliance with Lucifer's demand, Faustus stabs his arm,
only to find that his blood has mysteriously frozen in his
veins.  Mephistophilis comes running with hot coals to warm
Faustus' blood, and it starts flowing again.  The contract is
completed, and the moment of crisis past.  Mephistophilis
provides a show to divert Faustus' thoughts.  He calls for
devils who enter with a crown and royal robes.  They dance
around Faustus, delighting him with the thought that he can
summon such spirits at any time.

  Now that the bargain is sealed, Faustus is eager to satisfy
his passionate curiosity and appetites.  He wants answers to
questions that surge in his brain about the stars and the
heavenly spheres.  He also wants a wife to share his bed.

  Faustus' demands are met in typically hellish fashion.
Mephistophilis' revelations about the stars turn out to be no
more than elementary assumptions of medieval astronomy.  And the
wife provided Faustus by the spirit is a female demon who bursts
onto the stage in a hot spray of fireworks.

  Faustus becomes wary.  He suspects he has sold his soul for a
cheap bag of tricks.  The disillusioned scholar falls into
bitterness and despair.  He curses Mephistophilis and ponders
suicide.

  Faustus makes a futile stab at repentance.  He prays
desperately to God, only to have Lucifer appear before him.  As
a confirmation of Faustus' bondage to hell, they watch a parade
of the Seven Deadly Sins.  Pride leads Avarice, Gluttony, and
the rest, as each brandishes his own special weakness of the
soul or flesh.

  Casting aside all further thoughts of repentance, Faustus
gives himself up to the distractions that Mephistophilis puts in
his way.  Through travel and visits to foreign courts, Faustus
seeks to enjoy himself in the time he has left on earth.

  Mephistophilis takes Faustus to Rome and to the private
chambers of the Pope.  The two become invisible and play
practical jokes until a planned papal banquet breaks up in
disarray.  Then it's on to the German Emperor's court, where
they entertain his majesty by raising the ghost of Alexander the
Great.

  * At the Emperor's court, a skeptical knight voices his
doubts about Faustus' magic powers.  The magician takes revengeby making a pair of stag horns grow on the knight's head.
Faustus follows this prank with another.  He sells a crafty
horse-dealer a demon horse which vanishes when it is ridden into
water.

  In the meantime, Faustus' experiments with magic are being
imitated by his household staff.  Faustus' servant, Wagner,
tries his own hand at conjuring by summoning two comic devils
who force the clown, Robin, into Wagner's service.

  Not to be outdone, Robin steals one of Faustus' conjuring
books.  In his dimwitted way, he tries to puzzle out the spells.
The real magic is that Robin's spell works!  A weary
Mephistophilis, summoned from Constantinople, rises up before
the startled clown.  In anger, the spirit turns Robin into an
ape and his sidekick, Dick, into a dog.

  * The transformed clowns and the horse-dealer meet in a
nearby tavern, where they swap stories about the injuries they
have suffered at Faustus' hand.  Tipsy with ale, they descend on
the castle of Vanholt, where Faustus is busy entertaining the
Duke and Duchess with his fabulous magic tricks.  The magician
produces for the pregnant Duchess an out-of-season delicacy she
craves--wintertime grapes.

  * Faustus wins an easy victory over the rowdy crew from the
tavern, striking each of them dumb in turn.  He then returns to
Wittenberg, in a more sober frame of mind, to keep his
rendezvous with fate.

  Faustus' mind has turned toward death.  He has made a will,
leaving his estate to Wagner.  Yet he still holds feverishly
onto life.  He drinks and feasts far into the night with the
dissolute scholars of Wittenberg.  And, in a last magnificent
conjuring trick, he raises the shade (spirit) of the most
beautiful woman in history, Helen of Troy.

  At the end of his career, poised between life and death,
Faustus undergoes a last crisis of conscience.  An Old Man
appears to plead with Faustus to give up his magic art.  God is
merciful, the Old Man promises.  He will yet pardon Faustus and
fill his heart with grace.

  The magician hesitates, visibly moved by the Old Man's
chastening words.  But Mephistophilis is too quick for him.  The
spirit threatens Faustus with torture, if he reneges on his
contract with Lucifer.  At the same time, Mephistophilis
promises to reward Faustus with Helen of Troy, if he keeps faith
with hell.  Faustus collapses under the pressure.  He orders
Mephistophilis to torture the Old Man.  (Anyone, anyone but
himself.) And he takes the insubstantial shade of Helen for his
lover.  In doing so, he is lost.

  The final hour approaches.  As the minutes tick away, Faustus
tries frantically to stop the clock.  Give him one more month,
one more week, one more day to repent, he cries.  But the hours
chime away.  Midnight strikes.  The devil arrives through
billowing smoke and fire, and Faustus is led away to hell.

  * In the morning, the scholars of Wittenberg find Faustus'
body.  They deplore his evil fate, but honor him for his
learning.  For the black magician who might have been a light
unto the world, they plan a stately funeral.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  FAUSTUS

  It is no accident that Faustus compares himself to a colossus
(IV, VII).  Marlowe's hero looms out of the play like some huge,
jagged statue.  There is far too much of him to take in at a
glance.

  Make any simple statement about Faustus, and you'll find you
are only talking about part of the man.  Faustus lends himself
less than most characters to easy generalization.

  Say, for instance, that Faustus is a scholar.  Books are his
trade, philosophy his strength.  Yet what an unscholarly scholar
he is!  At times during the play, he kicks up his heels and
romps about the stage just like a comedian who has never heard
of philosophy in his life.

  Or say that Faustus is an atheist.  He scoffs at religion and
denies the existence of God.  But, at one of the play's most
dramatic moments, you see Faustus fall to his knees in a fervent
prayer of contrition to Christ.

  Perhaps we should take our cue from such contradictory
behavior and seek the key to Faustus in contradiction.  Clearly
he's a man of many inner conflicts.  Here are three for you to
think about:

  1.  Some people sense an age-old conflict in Faustus between
his body and his mind.  To these readers, Faustus is a noble
intellect, destroyed by his grosser appetites.  In this
interpretation, Faustus' tragedy is that he exchanges the
worthwhile pursuit of knowledge for wine, women, and song.
Faustus not only burns in hell for his carnal ways, he pays a
stiffer price:  loss of his tragic dignity.

  2.  Other readers see Faustus' conflict in historical terms.
Faustus lives in a time of the Middle Ages and the start of the
Renaissance.  These were two very different historical eras with
quite different values, and Faustus is caught in the grip of
changing times.  On the one hand, he is very aware of the
admonitions of the medieval church--don't seek to know too much,
learn contempt for this world, and put your energy into saving
your soul.  On the other hand, Faustus hears Renaissance voices
which tell him just the opposite.  Extend the boundaries of
human knowledge.  Seek wealth and power.  Live this life to the
full because tomorrow you'll be dead.  (This theme of "eat,
drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die" is known as carpe diem
or seize the day.  It was a popular theme in the Renaissance.)

  3.  Still other readers see Faustus torn between superhuman
aspirations and very human limitations.  Faustus dreams that
magic will make him a god.  In his early dealing with
Mephistophilis, he talks about himself as if he were a king.  He
gives commands, dictates terms, and fancies himself on a par
with Lucifer, the dreaded regent of hell.  Faustus is willing to
sign a contract which will free him from human restraints for
twenty-four years.  During that time, he will have a spirit's
body that can soar free of the earth, a body immune from the
ravages of old age and time.  Yet, even as he signs the
contract, Faustus somehow knows that he is only human.  His body
warns him to flee and addresses him, in no uncertain terms, as
"man."

  The contrast between Faustus' hopes and his realities is very
great indeed.  The man who was to have been a king grovels like
a slave before Lucifer.  The "god" who was to have escaped from
time watches powerless as the last hour of his life ticks away.
Because of the great distance between Faustus' dreams and
achievements, he strikes some readers as a wretch, an immature
egotist who cries like a child when the universe won't let him
have his way.

  Indeed, all three interpretations of Faustus present you with
a challenge and a question.  Which emerges most strongly from
the play:  Faustus' noble mind, his soaring Renaissance
aspirations, his superhuman dreams?  Or Faustus' gross
appetites, his sins against God, his very human terrors?
Somewhere between the super-hero and the lowly wretch, you will
find your own truth about Faustus.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  MEPHISTOPHILIS

  There are two sides to Mephistophilis.  One of these spirits
is an evil, malevolent tempter.  He wants Faustus' soul and
stops at nothing to get it.  This Mephistophilis lies to
Faustus, manipulates him with threats of torture, and jeers at
him when his final hour has come:

  What, weepst thou?  'tis too late:  despair.  Farewell.

  Fools that will laugh on earth must weep in hell.

  The second spirit has a sweeter nature.  He's a reluctant
demon who would spare Faustus if he could.  This Mephistophilis
offers no enticements.  He watches, in quiet distress, while
Faustus damns himself.  When summoned during the night by
Faustus' blasphemous conjurings, the spirit does not seize the
soul that is offered to him.  Instead, he urges Faustus away
from his contemplated deal with hell:

  O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands

  Which strike a terror to my fainting soul.

  Which is the real Mephistophilis?  It isn't easy to say.  You
can put your trust in Mephistophilis' better nature and see him
as a kind of guardian spirit.  You'll find evidence in the play
that Mephistophilis cares for Faustus and feels a strong
attraction to the man.  He calls his charge "My Faustus," and
flies to his side with eagerness.  He is a companion in Faustus'
adventures and is also Faustus' comforter.  The spirit
sympathizes when Faustus is sick with longing for heaven.  And
he goes out of his way to console the scholar with the thought
that heaven isn't such a great loss after all.

  Mephistophilis understands Faustus in ways that suggest they
are two of a kind.  He's been called Faustus' alter ego.  And
you get the feeling that he sees himself in Faustus as he was
eons before--a proud young angel who marched with Lucifer
against God, only to see his hopes of glory dashed when
Lucifer's rebellion failed.

  It's possible that, when Mephistophilis threatens Faustus, he
is merely doing his job.  The spirit isn't free to do what he
likes.  He is Lucifer's man.  Mephistophilis has counseled
Faustus against making a deal with hell.  But once that deal is
made, the spirit has no choice but to hold Faustus to it.

  On the other hand, you may feel that Mephistophilis shows
more enthusiasm than the job requires.  In that case, you can
see the spirit as Faustus' evil genius.  And Mephistophilis'
understanding of Faustus becomes a potent weapon in his hands.

  The spirit, for instance, knows just what cleverly worded
promises to make to get Faustus' signature on the dotted line.
He tells Faustus, "I will...  wait on thee, and give thee more
than thou has wit to ask." That promise turns out to be true,
but not in the way that Faustus has reason to expect.  What
Mephistophilis gives Faustus is an eternity of torment, not the
limitless power that Faustus imagines.

  Mephistophilis is a trickster.  When Faustus asks for a wife,
the spirit provides one--a demon too hot to touch.  When Faustus
asks for information about the stars, Mephistophilis gives him
facts which the scholar already knows.  In his own hellish
fashion, Mephistophilis abides by the letter, not the spirit, of
the contract.  He obeys Faustus' commands without fulfilling his
wishes.  The spirit makes sure that Faustus pays full price for
relatively shoddy goods.

  Is Mephistophilis a brilliant schemer who plots the damning
of Faustus?  Or is he a reluctant actor in the tragedy?  It's up
to you to decide.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  WAGNER

  Wagner is not happy in his role as a servant.  He's
sufficiently educated to regard himself as a scholar, and he's
eager to prove his prowess in logical dispute.  If you read
between the lines, you begin to suspect that Wagner has a secret
yen to wear a professor's robes and sit as king of the roost in
Faustus' study.

  Yet there is a more faithful side to Wagner.  He serves his
master loyally.  He shields his master from the prying eyes of
tattle-tale clerics.  And he takes the trouble to track Faustus
down on the road with an invitation to the castle of Vanholt.
(Wagner knows very well that his master likes to preen in front
of the nobility.) What's more, Wagner is Faustus' heir.  Faustus
probably wouldn't leave his money to Wagner except as a "thank
you" for years of good service.

  Some readers think Wagner is foolish.  But there's every
indication he's really rather clever.  He dabbles in magic and
conjures demons without going to hell.  Wagner watches carefully
as his master gets snared by the devil.  He manages to skirt by
the same trap without getting caught.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  VALDES AND CORNELIUS

  Valdes and Cornelius usher in the era of wizardry at
Wittenberg.  By introducing magic to the university, they, play
a minor role in tempting Faustus.  Valdes seems the bolder of
the pair.  He dreams of a glorious association with Faustus and
has himself overcome the scruples of conscience that await the
would-be magician.  Cornelius is more timid, content to dabble
in magic rather than practice it in earnest.  "The spirits tell
me they can dry the sea," Cornelius says, never having ventured
to try the experiment.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ROBIN

  With his stirrings of ambition and his hapless attempts at
conjuring, Robin, the clown, is a sort of minor Wagner.  He's
yet another servant who follows his master into devilry.  Like
most of the characters in the play, Robin is an upstart.  He
regards himself as destined for higher things than service in an
innyard.  In particular, magic turns his head.  Intoxicated with
the thought of commanding demons, Robin turns impudent.  He gets
drunk on the job and boasts of seducing his master's wife.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE OLD MAN

  The Old Man is a true believer in God and is the one human
being in the play with a profound religious faith.  He walks
across the stage with his eyes fixed on heaven, which is why he
sees angels visible to no one else.  With his singleness of
purpose, the Old Man is an abstraction, rather than a
flesh-and-blood character.  (Appropriately, he has no name.) His
role is to serve as a foil for Faustus.  His saintly path is the
road not taken by Marlowe's hero.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  LUCIFER

  There's something compelling about the prince of hell, a
fallen angel who once dared to revolt against God.  Formerly
bright as sunlight, Lucifer's now a dark lord who holds sway
over a mighty kingdom.  Yet there's something coarse about him,
too.  Lucifer's regal image is tarnished by association with
creatures like the Seven Deadly Sins and that jokester,
Belzebub.  The grandeur of ambition, the grossness of sin--these
two aspects of Lucifer are reflected in his servants.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  BENVOLIO

  A courtier, Benvolio takes the world with a blase yawn and a
skeptical sneer.  You can't fool him, but he can outwit himself.
He does so by rashly challenging the powers of hell on two
occasions.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE HORSE COURSER

  Horse coursers or traders were the Elizabethan equivalents of
our used-car salesmen.  That is, they were known for being
cheats.  Marlowe's horse courser is no exception.  A sharp
bargainer, he beats down the price of Faustus' horse.  And when
the horse proves to be a spirit, he demands his money back.
This hardy peasant is a survivor.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE POPE

  The Pope is the most worldly of priests, luxury-loving and
power-hungry.  The character seems tailored to the Elizabethan
image of the churchmen of Rome, and his defeat at Faustus' hands
was undoubtedly the occasion for roars of approval from a
Catholic-hating crowd.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  SETTING

  Doctor Faustus stands on the threshold of two eras--the
Renaissance and the Middle Ages.

  Some aspects of the setting are distinctly medieval.  The
world of Doctor Faustus, for example, includes heaven and hell,
as did the religious dramas of the medieval period.  The play is
lined with supernatural beings, angels and demons, who might
have stepped onstage right out of a cathedral.  Some of the
background characters in Doctor Faustus are in fervent pursuit
of salvation, to which the Middle Ages gave top priority.

  But the setting of Doctor Faustus is also a Renaissance
setting.  The time of the play is the Age of Discovery, when
word has just reached Europe of the existence of exotic places
in the New World.  The atmosphere of Doctor Faustus is
speculative.  People are asking questions never dreamed of in
the Middle Ages, questions like, "Is there a hell?" Faustus
himself is seized by worldly, rather than otherworldly
ambitions.  He's far more concerned with luxurious silk gowns
and powerful war-machines than with saving his soul.

  It's easy for us to talk as if there were a neat dividing
line between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.  But of course
there isn't.  People lived through a long period of transition
in which old and new ways of thinking existed side by side.

  Transition is a key to the setting in Doctor Faustus.
Specifically, the scene is Wittenberg, a German university town
in the grip of change.  For almost a century before Faustus'
time, Wittenberg was a bastion of the Protestant faith.  But
now, religious certainties are being challenged by new ideas.
The students are more interested in Homer than in the Bible.
The younger men press forward toward forbidden knowledge, while
the old men shake their heads in dismay.

  The tensions of the university are reflected in Faustus'
study, where much of the play takes place.  The study is an
uneasy room.  At its center, on a great stand, lies the Bible.
It is there to remind Faustus of God.  But the bookshelves
contain works of ancient Greek writers which suggest a more
practical approach to life (Galen's guide to medicine, for
example).  The study also contains maps which show Faustus
exotic lands with their promise of new sensations.  And the
scholar has recently added occult books, with their short cut to
Nature's secrets.

  The room gives off conflicting signals about a man on the
verge of a great decision.  Theology?  Science?  A life of
unabashed pleasure?  Which shall it be?  In this uncertain
atmosphere, Faustus struggles and fails to find his way.  Even
as he entertains bright Renaissance dreams, he gets caught in
the door that history is closing on the medieval age of faith.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THEMES

  The following are major themes of Doctor Faustus.

  1.  AMBITION

  Doctor Faustus is a study in ambition.  Its hero is an
"overreacher," a man who strives against human limitations.
Faustus tries to do more than is humanly possible.  He seeks to
know, possess, and experience everything under the sun.  There
are two ways to read Doctor Faustus:  (1) The play glorifies
ambition.  Though Faustus is finally undone, his dreams emerge
larger than the forces that defeat him.  (2) The play criticizes
ambition.  Faustus falls to great depths from lofty heights.
What's more, his larger-than-life dreams are cut down to size by
the pointed ironies of Mephistophilis.

  2.  CONCEPTS OF HELL

  There are three different concepts of hell in this play.
Faustus claims there is no hell.  Mephistophilis defines hell as
the absence of God.  The church says that hell is a pit of fire,
and that's where Faustus goes in the end.  Why are there three
hells instead of just one?  Perhaps Marlowe is exploring his own
uncertain ideas.  Or perhaps everyone finds a hell of his own.

  3.  CHRISTIANS vs.  CLASSIC IDEALS

  Despite its pantheon of gods, the classical world believed in
humanity.  The ancient Greeks extolled the perfection of the
human body and the clarity of human thought.  The medieval
church held almost the opposite view.  In the eyes of the
church, reason was suspect and flesh was the devil's snare.
Christian and classical beliefs clash in Doctor Faustus.  The
classical ideals focus on beauty, which is exemplified in the
play by Helen of Troy.  The Christian ideals are more severe and
are personified by the Old Man.  Helen's beauty is not to be
trusted, but the Old Man's counsel is sound, even if grim.

  4.  FREE WILL vs.  DETERMINISM

  A sense of doom hangs over Doctor Faustus, a sense that
Faustus' damnation is inevitable and has been decided in
advance.  Faustus struggles to repent, but he is browbeaten by
devils and barred from salvation by all the forces of hell.
Nonetheless, it is of his own volition that Faustus takes the
first step toward evil.  He makes a pact with the devil to
satisfy his lust for power.  And in that sense, Faustus chooses
his fate.

  5.  AN ATHEIST OR A CHRISTIAN PLAY?

  On the surface, Doctor Faustus has a Christian moral.
Faustus commits a mortal sin and goes to hell for it.  He denies
God and is therefore denied God's mercy.  Faustus is a scoffer
who gets a scoffer's comeuppance.  No fire-and-brimstone
preacher could have put it better than Marlowe.  If the surface
moral is the true moral of the play....

  There are reasons to be suspicious.  Marlowe was known to be
an atheist.  Moreover, he included a lot of blasphemy in the
play.  He seems to have taken an unholy glee in anti-religious
ceremony.  There is some powerful sacrilege in Doctor Faustus,
half buried in the Latin.

  Was Marlowe trying to slip a subversive message past the
censors?  Or was he honestly coming to grips with doubts about
his own atheistic beliefs?  If Marlowe knew the truth, it died
with him.

  6.  DIVERSIONS

  Hell has a lot of interesting gimmicks to keep Faustus from
thinking about death and damnation.  Devils provide distracting
shows, fireworks, and pageants for his entertainment.  Soon
Faustus catches on to the idea.  He learns to preoccupy his own
mind by feasting, drinking, and playing pranks.  All these
diversions keep Faustus from turning his attention to God and to
the salvation of his soul.  But is Faustus so different from the
rest of us?  Perhaps Marlowe is saying that diversions are not
only the pastimes of hell.  They are also the everyday business
of life itself.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  STYLE

  Whenever you read a critical work on Marlowe, you are almost
certain to find the writer referring to "Marlowe's mighty line."
That much-quoted phrase was coined by Ben Jonson, an Elizabethan
playwright, in a poetic tribute he wrote, not to Marlowe, but to
Shakespeare.  The poem was a send-off to the first complete
edition of Shakespeare's plays, published in 1623.  Here is what
Ben Jonson had to say:

  How far thou [Shakespeare] didst our Lyly outshine,

  Or sporting Kyd, or Marlowe's mighty line.

  And there Marlowe has stood through the ages, his name
unflatteringly bracketed with Shakespeare's.  Marlowe the
loud-voiced trumpet to Shakespeare's mellow violin.

  Ben Jonson's left-handed compliment was fair enough in its
way.  Marlowe earned his reputation as a loud-mouth.  His heroes
are boasters, not only in their aspirations, but also through
their language, which defies all limits.

  You can see the mighty line at work in Doctor Faustus.  When
Faustus speaks of power, for instance, he boasts of command over
"all things that move between the quiet poles," dominion that
stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man." The literary term
for extravagant, exaggerated language like this is "hyperbole."
And Marlowe exaggerates in many interesting ways.  For example,
he likes exotic adjectives.  "Pearl" alone won't do.  He wants
to convey the soft luster of a rarer gem.  So he reaches for a
phrase that has an air of Eastern mystery to it.  He writes of
the "orient pearl." Marlowe's giants are not merely large, they
are "Lapland giants," huge, furclad creatures from the frozen
North who come running, with smoke on their breath, to obey a
magician's commands.

  Marlowe has a fondness for dazzling heights and far-off
vistas.  In Doctor Faustus, he speaks of the "topless towers" of
Troy, towers so dizzyingly high they can't be climbed or
assaulted.  He imagines spirits who will "ransack the ocean"
floor and "search all corners of the new-found world" for
delicacies and treasure.  This outward thrust of the language
suggests space without limits, space that gives his restless,
searching heroes worlds to conquer and room to maneuver in.

  Marlowe likes the sound of large, round numbers.  In Doctor
Faustus, the figures tend to be moderate:  "A thousand ships,"
"a thousand stars." But elsewhere, the playwright deals
cavalierly in half-millions.

  In addition, Marlowe makes impossible comparisons.  Faustus
is promised spirit-lovers more beautiful than Venus, the queen
of love.  In fact, he is given Helen, who is brighter and more
luminous than a starlit sky.

  The very use of Helen as a character suggests another of
Marlowe's stylistic devices.  He raids the pantheon of classic
gods and heroes for comparisons that reflect favorably on his
own protagonists.  Helen steps out of the pages of the world's
most famous epic straight into Faustus' arms.  And Alexander the
Great appears at the snap of the magician's fingertips.
Marlowe's heroes don't seek to emulate famous figures.  The
ancient gods and warriors come to them.

  Marlowe's use of hyperbole has a profound effect on your
perception of Faustus, though you may not be aware of it.
Without the real magic of the language, Faustus would be a
second-rate magician.  But with the poetry spinning its silken
web, Faustus becomes a dreamer of real magnitude.  The language
makes him a force to be reckoned with and gives him heroic
stature.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH

  The term "Elizabethan English" is often applied to the
English of the period 1560-1620.  It was a time when English
began to be used with vigor and growing confidence.  Before
Elizabeth I's reign (1558-1603), Latin was the language of the
Church, of education, of law, science, scholarship, and
international debate.  English was regarded by many as an
inferior language.  It had no fixed spelling, no officially
sanctioned grammar, and no dictionaries.  In the words of one
scholar, writing in 1561, "Our learned men hold opinion that to
have the sciences in the mother-tongue hurteth memory and
hindereth learning."

  During Elizabeth's reign, poetry, drama, and criticism in
English flourished.  Writers like Edmund Spenser, Christopher
Marlowe, and William Shakespeare helped to forge English into a
flexible medium capable of being used not only for the
expression of local culture but also for a translation of the
Bible.

  Language differences can occur even today between parents and
their children.  It is only to be expected, therefore, that the
English used some four hundred years ago will diverge markedly
from the English used today.  The following information on
Marlowe's language will help you to understand Doctor Faustus.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  MOBILITY OF WORD CLASSES

  Adjectives, nouns and verbs were less rigidly confined to
particular classes in Marlowe's day.  For example, nouns could
be used as verbs.  In the first lines of the Prologue, the
Chorus says:

  Not marching in the fields of Trasimene

  Where Mars did mate the warlike Carthagens

  using "mate" to mean "befriend." Nouns could also be used as
adjectives as in Act I, Scene I, when "orient" is used to mean
"shining":

  Ransack the ocean for orient pearl.

  Adjectives could be used as adverbs.  In Act II, Scene II,
Faustus says to Lucifer, "This will I keep as chary as my life,"
using "chary" where a modern speaker would require "charily" or
"carefully."

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  CHANGES IN WORD MEANING

  The meaning of words undergoes changes, a process that can be
illustrated by the fact that "silly" used to mean "holy" and
"villain" referred to a "peasant." Many of the words in Doctor
Faustus are still an active part of our language today but their
meanings have changed.  The change may be small as in the case
of "dispute," which meant "debate, discuss," as in:

  Is to dispute well logic's chiefest end?

  and "wit," which meant "understanding":

  A greater subject fitteth Faustus' wit

  The change could be more fundamental, so that "artisan"
implied "student"; "cunning" was the equivalent of
"knowledgeable"; and "boots" meant "is worth" in:

  What boots it then to think of God or heaven?

  (Act II, Scene I)

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  VOCABULARY LOSS

  Words not only change their meanings but sometimes disappear
from common usage.  In the past, "earm" meant "wretched" and
"leod" meant "people." The following words found in Doctor
Faustus are no longer current in English, but their meaning can
usually be gauged from the context in which they occur.

  AMAIN at top speed

  AND if

  ANON immediately, soon

  BELIKE it would appear, probably

  BESEEMS suits, fits

  BOTTLE bundle

  BREVIATED cut short, abbreviated

  BRIGHT-SPLENDENT magnificent

  CAITIFF miserable person, wretch

  COIL turmoil, noisy row

  COSMOGRAPHY geography

  COZENING cheating

  ELL 45 inches (103 centimeters)

  ETERNIZED made famous forever

  FAIN willingly, gladly

  FAMILIARS spirits.  Old women's cats were often thought to be
"familiars," devils in disguise.

  FOOTMANSHIP skill in running

  GET create, beget

  GLUT satisfy

  GRAMERCIES great thanks

  GRATULATE express pleasure at

  GRAVELLED confounded

  HEST command

  LIST wish, please

  LOLLARDS heretics

  LUBBERS clumsy men

  MALMSEY sweet wine

  MUSCADINE muscatel wine

  PICKEDEVANTS pointed beards

  PROPER own

  PRITHEE pray thee

  PROPER own

  QUICK alive

  QUITTANCE payment for

  RAZE cut, scratch

  ROUSE carousal, drinking bout

  'SBLOOD by God's blood

  SIGNORY lord, lordship

  SITH since

  'SNAILS by God's nails

  STAVESACRE insecticide

  TERMINE end, terminate

  TESTER small coin

  THEREFOR for this

  THOROUGH through

  VARLETS rascals

  WELKIN sky, heavens

  WHATSO whatever, whatsoever

  WHIPPINCRUST hippocras, cordial wine

  'ZOUNDS by God's wounds

  In addition, Marlowe could have assumed much of his audience
was familiar with Latin and the Bible.  This is why he could
make use of such Latin tags as "Stipendium peccati mors est,"
meaning "The wages of sin are death."

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  VERBS

  Elizabethan verb forms differ from modern usage in three main
ways:

  1.  Questions and negatives could be formed without using
"do/did," as when Faustus asks:

  Why waverest thou?

  (II, I)

  where today we would say:  "Why do you hesitate?" Marlowe had
the option of using forms a and b whereas contemporary usage
permits only the a forms:

  a b

  What do you see?  What see you?

  What did you see?  What saw you?

  You do not look well.  You look not well.

  You did not look well.  You looked not well.

  2.  A number of past participles and past tense forms are
used that would be ungrammatical today.  Among these are:

  "writ" for "written":


...here's nothing writ.

  (II, I)

  "beholding" for "beholden":


...I am beholding

  To the Bishop of Milan.

  (III, II)

  "cursen" for "accursed" and "eat" for "eaten":


...as I am a cursen man, he never left eating till he

  had eat up all my load of hay.

  (IV, VI)

  3.  Archaic verb forms sometimes occur:

  No Faustus, they be but fables.

  (II, II)

  Thou art damned

  (II, II)

  Thou needest not do that, for my mistress hath done it.

  (II, III)

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  PRONOUNS

  Marlowe and his contemporaries had the extra pronoun "thou,"
which could be used in addressing equals or social inferiors.
"You" was obligatory if more than one person was addressed:

  Come, German Valdes, and Cornelius

  And make me blest with your sage conference.

  (I, I)

  It could also be used to indicate respect, as when Faustus
tells the Emperor:

  My gracious Lord, you do forget yourself.

  (IV, I)

  Frequently, a person in power used "thou" to a subordinate
but was addressed "you" in return, as when the Clown agrees to
serve Wagner at the end of Act I, Scene IV.

  Clown:  I will, sir.  But hark you, master, will you teach me
this

  conjuring occupation?

  Wagner:  Ay, sirrah, I'll teach thee to turn thyself to a
dog.

  Relative pronouns such as "which" or "that" could be
omitted:


...'twas thy temptation

  Hath robbed me of eternal happiness.

  (V, II)

  The royal plural "we" is used by the Pope, the Emperor, and
Lucifer when they wish to stress their power:

  We will despise the Emperor for that deed.

  (III, I)

  Thrice-learned Faustus, welcome to our court.

  (IV, II)

  Thus from infernal Dis do we ascend.

  (V, II)

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  PREPOSITIONS

  Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English
than they are today and so we find several uses in Doctor
Faustus that would have to be modified in contemporary speech.
Among these are:

  "of" for "by" in:

  Till, swollen with cunning of a self-conceit

  (Prologue)

  "of" for "from" in:

  Resolve me of all ambiguities

  (I, I)

  "on" for "of" in:

  Ay, take it, and the devil give thee good on't.

  (II, I)

  "of" for "on" in:

  They put forth questions of astrology.

  (IV, The Chorus)

  "unto" for "into" in:


...and I be changed

  Unto some brutish beast.

  (V, II)

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  MULTIPLE NEGATION

  Contemporary English requires only one negative per statement
and regards such utterances as "I haven't none" as nonstandard.
Marlowe often used two or more negatives for emphasis.  For
instance, in

  Why, thou canst not tell ne'er a word on it.

  (II, III)

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE FAUST LEGEND AND MARLOWE

  There really was a Faust, casting his magic spells about
fifty years before Christopher Marlowe wrote his play.  Johannes
Faustus, a German scholar of dubious reputation, flourished
between 1480 and 1540.  Some of his contemporaries spoke of him
as a faker who lived by his wits, a medieval swindler.  Others,
more impressed, thought him a sorcerer in league with evil
spirits.  Whatever else he may have been, he was certainly
notorious.  A drunken vagabond, he was reported to have studied
magic in the Polish city of Cracow.  While some regarded him as
a fool and a mountebank, others claimed that he traveled about
with a dog and a performing horse--both of which were really
devils.

  Soon after his death the "real" Dr.  Faustus disappeared into
the realm of legend, and every story popularly told about wicked
magicians was told about him.  Faustus became the scholar who
sold his soul to the devil in exchange for universal knowledge
and magical power, and so was damned forever.

  Stories like these weren't new--they had been popular for
centuries.  There was a legend about Simon Magus, a wizard of
early Christian times, who was said to have found death and
damnation, when he attempted to fly.  Pope Sylvester II
(314-335) was also suspect.  He knew so much that his
contemporaries thought he must have sold his soul to the devil
to gain such knowledge.

  During the Renaissance, the Faustus tales had a powerful
impact.  They dramatized the tug-of-war between the admonitions
of the church and the exciting possibilities of knowledge
suggested by the advance of science and the revival of classical
learning.  All over Europe, inquisitive spirits found themselves
in trouble with the conservative clergy.  In Italy, for
instance, Galileo was accused of heresy for challenging the
Roman Catholic view of the heavens.  In England, the
free-thinking Sir Walter Raleigh was investigated for atheism.
And in Germany, adventurous scholars found themselves at oddswith the zealous spirit of the Protestant Reformation.
Protestant theologians thought that mankind's energies should be
focused on God, the Bible, and salvation by faith.

  By 1587, the German Faustbuch (Faustbook) had appeared, a
collection of tales about the wicked magician.  The Protestant
author makes it clear that Faustus got exactly what he deserved
for preferring human to "divine" knowledge.  But theological
considerations aside, these were marvelous stories.  The book
was enormously popular and was rapidly translated into other
languages, including English.  However, the English Faustbook
wasn't published until 1592, a fact that creates some mystery
for scholars who believe that Doctor Faustus was written in
1590.

  Christopher Marlowe saw the dramatic potential of the story.
He promptly used it as the plot of his play, the first Faust
drama, and possibly the best.  Every incident in the play seems
taken from the Faustbuch, even the slapstick comedy scenes.  The
attacks on the Roman Catholic church had also become part of the
Protestant orthodoxy of the tale.  The poetry, however, is
Marlowe's.

  Since then, the story has been used many times, both
comically and seriously.  The German poet Goethe turned Faust
into a hero whose thirst for knowledge leads to salvation.  In
the nineteenth century, Charles Gounod and Hector Berlioz wrote
operas about Faust.  Shortly after World War II, the novelist
Thomas Mann used the Faust story as the basis of an allegory
about the German people.  More recently, the story was
transformed into the musical comedy Damn Yankees, in which the
hero sells his soul to help his hometown baseball team win the
pennant.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  FORM AND STRUCTURE

  Allowances must be made for the shattered form in which
Doctor Faustus survives.  Originally, the play may have had the
loose five-act structure suggested by the 1616 text.  Or it may
simply have been a collection of scenes or movements, as in the
shorter version of 1604.  In fact, the act divisions in Doctor
Faustus are the additions of later editors.  Scholars have made
their own decisions about the play's probable cut-off points.
That's why no two editions of Doctor Faustus have identical act
and scene numbers.

  The genre of Doctor Faustus is the subject of critical
debate.  Some readers view the play as an heroic tragedy where
the hero is destroyed by a flaw in his character but retains his
tragic grandeur.  Others believe Doctor Faustus is more of a
morality play in which the central character forfeits his claim
to greatness through a deliberate choice of evil.

  Doctor Faustus most closely resembles the type of drama known
in the Renaissance as an atheist's tragedy.  The atheist's
tragedy had for its hero a hardened sinner, a scoffer who boldly
denied the existence of God.  In such a play, the hero's cynical
disbelief brought about his downfall.  His tragedy wasn't just
death.  It was also damnation.  For the edification of the
audience, the hero died unrepentant, often with a curse on his
last breath, and one had the distinct impression that repentance
would have saved him.

  It is technically possible to diagram Doctor Faustus in a
manner similar to Shakespearean tragedy:

  ACT I:  EXPOSITION.  Faustus' ambitions are explored.  He
turns to magic to fulfill them.

  ACT II:  RISING ACTION.  Faustus summons Mephistophilis and
signs a contract with hell.  He begins to regret his bargain.

  ACT III:  CLIMAX.  Faustus repents, but Lucifer holds him to
his agreement.  Faustus reaffirms his bondage to hell.

  ACT IV:  FALLING ACTION.  Faustus wins fame and fortune
through magical evocations.  His inner doubts remain.

  ACT V.  CATASTROPHE.  Faustus damns himself irrevocably by
choosing Helen over heaven.  His final hour comes, and he is
carried off by devils.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE STORY

  There is no standard edition of Doctor Faustus.  The play
survives in two widely read versions, one dating from 1604, the
other from 1616.  The 1616 text is longer by about 600 lines and
contains incidents and characters missing from the 1604 text.
There is great critical debate as to which is the "real" Doctor
Faustus.  Some scholars attribute the additional material in the
1616 text not to Marlowe, but to a collaborator named Samuel
Rowley.  Check the introduction to your copy of Doctor Faustus.
It will tell you which version of the play you are reading.
This guide is based on the version of Doctor Faustus printed in
The Norton Anthology of English Literature (New York:  Norton,
1979), edited by M.  H.  Abrams and others.  The version in that
anthology is based on W.  W.  Gregg's composite of the 1604 and
1616 texts of Marlowe's play.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE CHORUS

  The play opens with a speech by the Chorus, a voice outside
the action that prepares you for the story of Doctor Faustus.
The Chorus was used in Greek and Roman plays as a way of
commenting on the dramatic action.  Here, the Chorus might also
be called the "Commentator" since it consists of only one actor.
He tells us that Faustus grew up in the German town of Rhodes,
had lower-class parents, and went on to study theology in
Wittenberg.  After earning his doctorate, Faustus soon realized
that he preferred magic to religion.

  The Chorus calls this magic "cursed necromancy." Does he
disapprove of Faustus?  Or does he privately admire him?  Your
answer is important because the Chorus' feelings influence the
audience's reaction to Faustus, even before Faustus himself
appears on stage.

  NOTE:  THE CHORUS The first business of the Chorus is to
speak the prologue.  The Elizabethan prologue usually contains a
brief introduction to the story and is delivered before the play
begins.  If the plot is complicated, the prologue gives the
audience a thread to hold on to.  And just as important, when
there is little scenery on the stage, the prologue often tells
an audience when and where the play will take place.

  The Chorus informs you that this isn't a play about warlike
conquests or love.  The hero of this play is a scholar, a
university man, a peasant's son, who has pulled himself up by
his bootstraps to become a Doctor of Divinity.

  What the Chorus is announcing in these opening lines is a
departure from the usual subject matter of tragedy.
Traditionally, tragedy was the province of noblemen and kings.
But Faustus occupies a lower rung of the social ladder, hailing
from a poor and humble family.  Brains, energy, and talent have
lifted him from obscurity to a position of honor in Wittenberg.
Despite his achievements, Faustus is not a nobleman.  He is a
self-made man, with a strong skepticism toward much of the
establishment around him.

  The Chorus' speech contains an abbreviated biography of
Faustus, but it also parallels events in Marlowe's life.  It is
the story of a town laborer's son, sent by generous relatives to
college so that he might get ahead in life.  For a while,
Faustus, like Marlowe, flourished at the university.  He
followed the usual clerical path of study and excelled in
disputes (the academic exercises of the time, similar to our
exams) concerning "heavenly matters of theology." Then something
happened to Faustus.  Theology lost its attraction.  From
heavenly matters, he fell to the "devilish exercise" of
necromancy (black magic).

  To mark this shift in the man, the Chorus uses the image of
appetites gone awry.  At one point in his life, Faustus relished
the healthful fruits of learning.  Now he craves unwholesome
delicacies.  Magic comes to Faustus like a rich dessert at the
end of a heavy meal, sweet to his taste, yet destructive of his
well-being.

  With such an introduction, the Chorus sweeps aside the
curtain to reveal the inner stage.  Faustus is seated in his
study, a small monkish cell that is both a library and a
laboratory.

  NOTE:  THE IMAGE OF ICARUS In the Chorus' reference to
Faustus' "waxen wings," you have an implied comparison of
Faustus to Icarus.  Icarus was a figure of Greek mythology who
flew too near the sun on wings of wax and feathers, made for him
by his father, Daedalus.  When the wax melted, Icarus fell into
the sea and drowned.  There is something heroic about this
foolish boy, consumed by the oldest dream of man, who challenged
the heavens in his desire for flight.  The image of Icarus
qualifies the negative feelings toward Faustus, aroused in you
by all the Chorus' words ("swollen, glutted, surfeits") that
suggest a monstrous appetite.

  As Marlowe will remind you throughout the play, there are two
faces to scholarly ambition.  One is of greed and ruthlessness,
but the other is of courage and ambition.  If Doctor Faustus is
an ambiguous play--that is, a play capable of more than one
interpretation--then the ambiguity begins here in the opening
speech.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT I, SCENE I

  You come upon Faustus at a critical moment in his life.  He
is obsessed with the course of his future, and speaks in a
formidable, scholarly fashion, sprinkling his sentences with
quotations in Latin and Greek.  Try reading it first for the
English sense.  Then read it again for insights into the man.
Who is this Faustus?  What kind of choice is he about to make?

  The first thing that may strike you about Faustus is the
sheer breadth of his knowledge.  He has mastered every advanced
course of study offered by the university.  Divinity, logic (we
would say philosophy), medicine, and law are all at his
finger-tips.  Whatever the scholarly life can teach--the liberal
arts, the professions, the sciences--Faustus has already
learned.  In our age of specialization, it is hard to grasp the
scope of his achievement.  What Faustus knows is just about
everything there was to know in the world of his time.

  Unless such a man is content to rest on his laurels, he has a
problem.  Where does he go from here?  Perhaps more deeply into
one of the various disciplines.  Watch Faustus as he grapples
with his inner conflicts.

  Trained in philosophy, he asks the very basic question:
"What is the end, or the purpose, of every art?" The end of law
is to settle petty legacies, and this is a waste of such
considerable gifts as his.  Medicine strives to preserve the
body's health.  Faustus has done more than his share of this
already.  His prescriptions alone have saved whole cities from
the plague.

  The aim of logic is to dispute well.  Yet this won't do much
good for the star debater of Wittenberg.  Disputation is for
boys in the schoolroom.  Faustus has advanced far beyond that
stage.

  In the reasons for Faustus' rejections, you gain insight into
his dreams.  The practice of law may serve society, but that
doesn't mean one should become a lawyer.  Medicine may prolong
life, but it cannot make life eternal.  Logic offers a tool and
a method of thought, but it does not even begin to approach
life's ultimate truths.  None of these disciplines offers a
supreme purpose.  All leave him still "but Faustus and a man."

  Perhaps, after all, religion will best serve his ends.
Having dismissed the secular disciplines one by one, Faustus
returns for a moment to his first love, theology.  Laying aside
the books he's been leafing through, the works of Aristotle and
Galen, he picks up the Bible and reads from St.  Paul:  "The
reward of sin is death." Flipping a little further, he comes
upon a text which seems to him an ominous contradiction.  It
says all men are sinners.  Thus, all must die.  But sinning is
human.  The two passages, taken together, bring Faustus up
short.  Mortality is what he came to the Bible to avoid.  And
here it is again, staring him in the face.  Faustus takes refuge
in fatalism--what will be, will be, he says with a shrug of the
shoulders.  Tossing the Bible aside, he turns with evident
relish to the books (already in his library) on the forbidden
art of necromancy.

  NOTE:  THE BIBLE ACCORDING TO FAUSTUS Faustus, of course, is
quoting the Bible out of context.  The passage from St.  Paul
reads:  "The reward of sin is death, but the gift of God is
eternal life." Faustus notes only the first part of the text,
the part that seems to doom him from the beginning.  He ignores
the message of hope at the end of the same chapter and verse.
This seems an oversight for a learned Doctor of Divinity.

  The question is why does Faustus read the Bible in such a
selective manner?  Here are some possible answers:

  1.  Faustus finds in the Bible exactly what he is looking
for--an excuse to plunge headlong into magic.  Since he is eager
to take up the "damned" art of necromancy, it is convenient for
him to believe he is damned, no matter what he does.

  2.  Another hand than Faustus' is at work, turning the leaves
of the Bible and directing his eyes.  In Act V, you will see the
suggestion that, for all his sense of power, Faustus may not be
in charge of his own life.

  3.  Marlowe believes religion to be a closed door.  Faustus
finds no hope in the Bible because Marlowe finds no hope there.
From the author's point of view, Faustus' reading of the Bible,
however incomplete, may be essentially right.

  Do you see other possibilities?  Try to figure out why
Faustus quotes so selectively from the Bible.

  Faustus is instantly charmed by his books on black magic.
For one thing, they still hold secrets for him.  Here's the
ideal subject for a man who wants to know everything.  All those
strange lines and circles are so wonderfully mysterious.

  Faustus dreams of power and imagines that magic will give him
mastery over the elements, dominion over the winds and the
clouds.  What is a king, after all, compared to a mighty
magician?  With magic, Faustus thinks it possible to become a
god.

  Faustus' ambition may seem less far fetched if you compare
his hopes of magic with our own expectations of science.  We
look to science to carry us to the stars, to control disasters
like famine and flood, to cure disease and to prolong human
life.  Faustus looks to magic for the power of flight and for
freedom from death and old age.  So our own dreams are pretty
close to Faustus'.  The real difference lies in our method.  We
try to make our dreams come true with the cool, factual
discipline of science, whereas Renaissance scholars like Faustus
turned, instead, to a curious blend of science and
superstition.

  The sixteenth century made no clear distinction between
astronomers (people who studied the stars through the
newly-discovered telescopes) and astrologers (people who used
the stars to predict human destiny).  The word "astrologer"
applied to both.  In a similar manner, early Renaissance
chemistry included alchemy, the pseudo-science of turning base
metals into gold.

  Faustus, as you've seen, knows the experimental sciences.
His room is, in part, a laboratory.  But he does not find it
unusual to have in his office both test tubes and necromantic
books.  For Faustus, magic and science merge into a deep, dark
area which was feared and largely prohibited by the church.

  As Faustus reaches out for this forbidden knowledge, two
angels suddenly appear before his eyes.  The Good Angel urges
him to "lay his damned book aside" and return to God and the
scriptures.  The Evil Angel tells Faustus to continue on the
path he has chosen since this will enable him to rival God in
power.

  NOTE:  THE GOOD AND THE EVIL ANGELS The Good and Evil Angels
are hold-overs from medieval morality plays.  In this form of
drama, popular during the Middle Ages, they did battle for the
soul of a character known as Everyman.  (The characters in
medieval drama were abstractions.  Everyman, as his name
implies, stood for all humanity.) Marlowe has borrowed the
device of the angels to dramatize Faustus' inner struggle.  The
Good Angel is the voice of his conscience; the Evil Angel, that
of his appetites.  Throughout the play, the angels will appear
on stage whenever a moral crisis is at hand.  And they will
vanish as soon as Faustus has chosen his course.

  You'll notice that the Good Angel doesn't put up much of a
fight.  Magic has taken too deep a hold on Faustus.  "How am I
glutted with conceit of this!" indicates that he is wildly
excited about magic.  His thoughts take wing.  They fly all over
the place.  To India for gold and to the New World for exotic
fruits, then back again to the lecture halls of Germany, where
he will clothe the scholars in silk.

  But wait.  Faustus seeks knowledge and power, yet now he sets
his goals on luxury and wealth.  Are Faustus' desires sensual or
intellectual?  Does he want wisdom--or material comforts?  You
might keep this question in mind as you read the play.  Faustus
is first and foremost a scholar.  But he's no professor in an
ivory tower.  As the Chorus has pointed out, Faustus is a man of
appetite.  He may love books as few men love them, but he also
has a strong taste for good food, rare gems, and rich
clothing.

  Some readers are disturbed by the sensual side of Faustus.
While they admire his quest for knowledge, they're dismayed by
his bent for luxury.  If Faustus would stick to pure research
into the workings of Nature, he might be a noble hero in their
eyes.  But his craving for lush fruits and silk garments make
him seem undignified.

  Other readers regard Faustus' sensuality as an heroic
quality.  His hunger for beauty and lust for life are part of
the great Renaissance adventure.  The medieval church was
unnatural in its efforts to suppress bodily desires.  Such
readers conclude that Faustus is right in giving full play to
his senses.

  What do you think of Faustus' desires?  Do they enhance or
diminish him in your eyes?  If offered unlimited power, in what
direction would your thoughts travel?

  As Faustus embarks on his career in magic, he summons to his
home Valdes and Cornelius, two practitioners of black magic from
Wittenberg University.  They have been in the neighborhood, if
not in the lecture halls, distracting students' minds with their
conjuring tricks.  They also have called on Faustus before.

  Faustus' greeting to Valdes and Cornelius suggests that they
are responsible for luring him into magic.  Last time you came
for dinner, you talked me into it, Faustus implies.  But no, he
quickly retracts his words.  Magic is his own idea.  He has
reached the point where he simply cannot concentrate on anything
else.

  Valdes is delighted with Faustus' news.  He imagines a trio
of magicians--Cornelius, Valdes, and Faustus--who will take the
world by storm.  With Faustus' brains and the experience of
Cornelius and Valdes, they'll all be rich and famous.  But
that's not what happens.  Valdes and Cornelius instruct Faustus
in the basics of conjuring and then send him off to practice on
his own.

  The student magician quickly becomes a master who has no need
of partners for his act.  This will isolate Faustus since he
will now practice magic without a human tie.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT I, SCENE II

  Faustus has been missing from the university.  The
disputations, which he was accustomed to win with his persuasive
arguments (his "sic probos," Latin for "thus, I prove") just
aren't the same any more.  Two Wittenberg scholars, as they pass
Faustus' house, wonder what has happened to him.

  The scholars make the mistake of stopping and questioning
Wagner, Faustus' half-servant, half-disciple.  (The Renaissance
called such a person a "famulus.") Wagner considers himself
superior to servants, but obviously the scholars see him as a
servant.  They address him contemptuously as "sirrah," a term
appropriate for a menial worker, and they quickly irritate him.
For the rest of this scene, Wagner takes his revenge by matching
wits with the scholars and proving that he is just as sound a
logician as either one of them.  This is all part of a comic
subplot, and to reinforce the difference in tone, Marlowe has
Wagner speak in prose.

  NOTE:  PROSE FOR THE LOWER CLASSES Elizabethan dramatists
reserved poetry for their upperclass characters.  Kings, nobles,
and Doctors of Divinity like Faustus generally spoke a formal,
dignified language appropriate to their station in life.
Lowerclass characters didn't usually merit the verse line.
Servants and clowns like Wagner and Robin could be expected to
speak prose, the language of the London streets.

  Wagner is also speaking nonsense.  When asked where his
master is, he answers that "God in heaven knows." Don't you
know?  the scholars ask him.  Ah, that doesn't necessarily
follow, Wagner replies, wagging his finger in their faces and
reminding them severely that, after all, he isn't God.  No,
Wagner isn't God.  But he finds it necessary to say so.  In
Wagner's insolence, there are echoes of Faustus' aspiring pride.
In fact, these scenes in the comic subplot are often called
"echo scenes" since servants follow in their masters'
footsteps.

  After Wagner answers insult for insult, he finally gives the
scholars the information they want.  Faustus is having dinner
inside with Valdes and Cornelius.  The scholars, shuddering at
the mere names of these two demon-traffickers, wring their hands
and fear the worst.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT I, SCENE III

  In the pitch black of night, with an ominous thunderstorm
brewing, Faustus goes off to a grove to conjure spirits.  As the
thunder roars and the lightning flashes, he draws a charmed
circle on the ground.  The circle marks the spot where the
spirits will rise.  Inside the circle, Faustus writes anagrams
(or twisted versions) of the name of God, spelling Jehovah
forward and backward, as one might change "God" to "dog."
Faustus celebrates the blasphemous Black Mass and, by so doing,
demonstrates his growing commitment to necromancy.

  NOTE:  THE BLACK MASS The Black Mass was a travesty of the
Roman Catholic service, and was conducted over the centuries by
the worshippers of Satan.  The Black Mass mimicked the language
of the Catholic mass (Latin, in those days) and used some of the
sacred gestures in a way that perverted their meaning.  For
example, Faustus sprinkles holy water and makes the sign of the
cross.  This mockery of a holy rite contained a message for
Satan:  I denounce God, and I serve only you.  In the 1590s, it
was an act of daring to perform this sacrilege on the stage.
Though Henry VIII had pulled England away from the Roman
Catholic Church in 1533, there were still English people alive
who remembered attending mass every Sunday during the reign of
the late Queen Mary.  Even if Rome and all its works were
detested in England now, Satan was quite another story.

  The climax of Faustus' ceremony is his farewell to God and
his hail to the devils Lucifer, Demi-gorgon, and Belzebub.  In
the name of the three princes of hell, Faustus calls upon the
demon spirits to rise.  (Don't worry if you don't understand
Faustus' speeches in this scene.  The convoluted Latin sentences
were no more intelligible to most of Marlowe's audience than
they are to you.  The playwright's intent is to mystify and
appall you with these Latin incantations.)

  In response to Faustus' summons, Mephistophilis appears in
the hideous shape of a dragon.  Faustus takes one look at the
fire-breathing monster, then tells it to go away and change its
appearance.  You're too ugly for me, he says.  And, in a satiric
thrust at a Roman Catholic monastic order, he orders the demon
to come back as a Franciscan friar.  After a short delay, the
spirit returns, his dragon's scales exchanged for a friar's
sedate hooded gown.

  Why does Mephistophilis first appear as a monster, only to
vanish and reappear as a monk?  Readers of Doctor Faustus
disagree on the meaning of this bit of quick-change artistry.
Some think that the devil is giving Faustus fair warning by
portraying hell honestly.  Mephistophilis arises in the
horrifying form of a dragon because hell is a place of horror
and damnation.  It is Faustus, the self-deceiver, who wants evil
prettied up.

  Other readers claim that it is all just good theater.  The
dragon zooms on stage to scare the audience, and the friar
follows to relieve terror with laughter.  It's open to
interpretation and your opinion is as good as any.

  Faustus is delighted with his demon spirit's obedience and
compliance.  Faustus thinks, like Aladdin, that he has rubbed a
genie out of a lamp.  (The genie's business, you recall, was to
fulfill Aladdin's every wish.) Faustus is ready with some pretty
tall orders for his spirit.

  Now that you're here, Faustus says to Mephistophilis, of
course, you'll do everything I say.  If I command it, you'll
make the moon drop out of the sky or cause the oceans to flood
the Earth.

  Can't do it, says Mephistophilis.  Sorry, Faustus, but I work
for Lucifer, not you.  My master has to approve every step I
take.  It turns out that Faustus has been flattering himself.
Magic hasn't brought him half the power he thought.  In fact,
strictly speaking, he hasn't summoned Mephistophilis at all.
The spirit has come of his own accord because he has heard
Faustus "racking" (torturing with anagrams) the name of God.

  Mephistophilis explains in scholastic terms that Faustus'
conjuring speech is only the incidental cause ("the cause per
accidens") of his showing up.  The real reason he has come is
that spirits always fly to souls who are in imminent danger of
being damned.

  I'm not afraid of damnation, Faustus replies with bravado.
Heaven and hell, they are all the same to me.  ("I confound hell
with Elysium," is what he says, dangerously equating the
Christian hell of flame with the blessed underworld of the dead
in Greek mythology.)

  What does Faustus think about hell?  He says hell holds no
terrors for him.  He implies (he'll later make it explicit) that
he doesn't even believe in it.  But if, in one breath, Faustus
belittles the whole idea of hell, in the next breath, he is
eager to hear more about it.  Just who is this Lucifer you keep
talking about?  Faustus demands of Mephistophilis.

  Mephistophilis tells Faustus the story of Lucifer, the bright
angel (his name in Latin means light-bearer) who rebelled
against God and was thrown out of heaven.  Lucifer's sins were
"aspiring pride and insolence," sins Faustus has reason to be
all too familiar with.

  You are moving in a world which believed profoundly in order,
in knowing one's place and staying in it.  The Renaissance
inherited from the Middle Ages a belief in a great chain of
being that descended from God all the way down to the sticks and
stones.  In this great chain, every link, from the lowliest
pebble to the angels on high, had a divine purpose.  If a link
was broken because somebody reached above his station, then
chaos ensued.

  In heaven, as on earth, order was strictly enforced.  God
reigned in glory there over nine different levels of angels.
Angels, being without sin, were presumably without envy.  They
rejoiced in God's order and sought only to uphold it.  Lucifer
was the exception, being ambitious.  Not content to serve God,
he tried to rival Him.

  In the eyes of the medieval church, Lucifer's aspiring pride
was the first--and worst--sin.  Lucifer's rebellion and
consequent fall created hell and brought evil into the world.
Is Marlowe endorsing the church's view that ambition is a deadly
sin?  Does he imply that ambition is a great virtue?  These are
important questions in Doctor Faustus and are open to
interpretation.

  So far, ambition has made Faustus jeopardize his soul through
contact with demons and through his denial of God.  But ambition
has also made Faustus a first-class scholar.  Without inner
drive, he would have remained the illiterate peasant he was
born.  Ambition has given Faustus magnificent dreams--dreams
like expanding the boundaries of human knowledge--on which all
progress depends.

  NOTE:  LUCIFER AND ICARUS The image of Lucifer falling from
heaven, dark against a flaming sky, recalls the image of Icarus
in the prologue.  Both Lucifer and Icarus flew too high, sought
the sources of light, and got burned in the process.  Lucifer
and Icarus are emblems for Faustus.  They tell you about the
precedents and penalties for soaring ambition.  Their fate
suggests that limitless aspiration is ill-advised.  But is it
also wrong?  At what point do you know whether your ambition is
too great?

  Faustus' next question to Mephistophilis concerns the nature
of hell.  If you're damned, you're in hell, right?  he
challenges the spirit.  But if Mephistophilis is in hell, then
why is he here?  But I am in hell, the spirit replies.  Hell
isn't a spot Mephistophilis can point out on a cosmic map.  It's
a state of being that one carries around inside.  "Why, this is
hell, nor am I out of it." For Mephistophilis, hell is a real,
if unlocalized place.  It's where Mephistophilis dwells and is
an immeasurable distance from God.  Mephistophilis is a fallen
angel.  And for a moment, he acts like one.  Perhaps he
remembers the higher things and this gets the better of him, for
he doesn't egg Faustus on.  Instead, he tries to hold him back
and issues a warning:

  O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands

  Which strike a terror to my fainting soul!

  The words are powerful.  They show you a Mephistophilis
afraid for Faustus.  The spirit knows what is to come for this
foolish, arrogant man.  And he suffers for him in advance.
Faustus, however, takes Mephistophilis' pain for weakness.
Can't you be more manly about things?  he asks contemptuously.

  Faustus sends him to Lucifer with the message that he would
like to strike a bargain with the fallen angel:  Faustus' soul
in exchange for twenty-four years of luxury, with Mephistophilis
as a servant who will cater to his every whim.  Notice that
Faustus refers to himself in the third person, like a king.  Why
do you think Marlowe does that?

  Mephistophilis agrees and returns to the nether regions with
no further comment.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT I, SCENE IV

  We return to the comic subplot and the high-handed doings of
Wagner.  Wagner's pride has been hurt by his encounter with the
scholars in Scene II.  As a result, he is looking for someone to
humiliate in turn.  Wagner hails the clown, Robin, with the same
demeaning terms, "Sirrah, boy" that he himself objected to from
the scholars.  Robin doesn't care for this sort of treatment,
either.  Boy!  he mutters indignantly.  I'm sure you've seen
many "boys" with beards on their faces like mine.

  Wagner tries another approach.  He accuses the unemployed
Robin of being so down-at-the-heels that he'll sell his soul to
the devil for a piece of raw mutton.  No dice, says the clown.
Not unless the mutton is well roasted and sauced.  Like Faustus,
Robin is willing to sell his soul, but only if the price is
right.

  This exchange between Wagner and Robin is a bawdy pun on the
word "mutton." Mutton is sheep's flesh, but in Elizabethan
English mutton also referred to the human sexual organs.  Robin
is thinking less about food than about the kitchen maid.

  Wagner, who is Faustus' servant and disciple, has a hankering
for a servant-disciple of his own.  And who better, he reasons,
than this out-of-work clown.  Wagner makes Robin an imperious
offer:  "Sirrah, wilt thou...  wait on me?"

  Faced with resistance, Wagner tries to buy Robin into his
service by offering the poor clown money.  It's a trick which
Robin fails to catch in time.  By taking Wagner's money, Robin
is accepting wages.  He's offering himself as Wagner's man.  Of
course, there's a condition attached to that money.  He is to
present himself, at an hour's notice, at a place Wagner will
name.  And there he is to be carried off by a devil.  When Robin
hears what the condition is, he drops the coins like a hot
potato.

  Oh no!  cries the clown.  Oh yes, says Wagner, who conjures
up two devils to come to his aid.  (Notice that Wagner is
Faustus' disciple in more ways than one.  He's been practicing
to good effect his master's magic tricks.) The devils, Banio and
Belcher, appear on stage in a spray of fireworks.  They chase
the poor clown until, frightened out of his wits, he agrees to
Wagner's terms.

  Robin will serve Wagner, call him master, and walk after him
in a manner that Wagner describes pedantically in Latin as Quasi
vestigiis nostris insistere (a high-flown way of saying "follow
in my footsteps").

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT II, SCENE I

  With Mephistophilis gone, Faustus begins to have doubts about
this deal with hell.  Must he go through with it and be damned?
Or can he still change his mind and be saved?

  Faustus is seized with a sudden impulse to give up the game
and throw himself on God's mercy.  It's an impulse that he
fiercely subdues.  How can he, a denier of God, go crawling to
God now?  Faustus tells himself to despair of God and trust in
the devil.  Yet still he wavers:  "Now go not backward, no, be
resolute!"

  You may be surprised by this hint of uncertainty in Faustus.
What happened to all his proud boasts of manly resolution?
That's what Faustus also wonders.  He's disgusted by these signs
of human weakness in himself.

  NOTE:  MARLOWE'S POETRY OF HESITATION In this speech, Marlowe
has altered the verse line to convey Faustus' feelings of
uncertainty.  The meter is wildly uneven.  The number of
stresses varies with almost every line.  Within the lines
themselves, there are many abrupt pauses to break the flow of
the verse.  This poetry reflects the nervous pacing of Faustus'
thoughts.  The speech starts off in one direction, turns back on
itself, and comes crashing down on the one point of assurance:

  To God?  He loves thee not.

  The God thou servest is thine own appetite,

  Wherein is fixed the love of Belzebub.

  In the midst of such candid self-assessment, Faustus sees the
angels again.  This time, he does more than passively listen to
their advice.  He actively questions them.  "Contrition, prayer,
repentance--what of them?" Faustus doubtfully ticks off this
list of virtues like a man who has heard that such things work,
but who's never had the leisure to try them.

  They're illusions, the "fruits of lunacy," according to the
Evil Angel, who has heard something in Faustus' voice which
prompts him to describe a praying man as an idiot, a pathetic
figure calling in the void to a God who does not hear.  Forget
such fancies, the Evil Angel continues.  Think of tangible
things--such as wealth.

  Wealth!  Faustus seizes the idea with a passion.  He shall
have the signiory of Emden--that is, he will control the wealthy
German seaport of Emden, one of the richest trading centers in
all of Germany.  (Did the Evil Angel say this?  Think for a
minute.  How many enticements have been offered to Faustus by
other characters in the play?  How many has he, in fact,
invented for himself?) Faustus can already hear the clink of
gold in his coffers.  In a fever of greed, he calls to
Mephistophilis to hurry back from hell with Lucifer's answer.
And sure enough, on the wings of a wish, the spirit flies into
the study.

  Here's what my master says, Mephistophilis informs Faustus.
You may have me to serve you, as you desire.  But first, you
must promise him your soul.  Faustus protests that he has
already done that.  Yes, in words, the spirit replies.  But now,
you must do it in writing.

  Faustus discovers that there are various stages of commitment
when dealing with the devil.  Faustus has already "hazarded" his
soul (or set it at risk) by foreswearing God and praying to
Lucifer.  But he has not yet signed away his soul.  Faustus can
still back out of the deal.  But if he proceeds with it, he may
never be able to back out.  Lucifer is leaving no loopholes.
The devil wants a contract.  And he wants that contract written
in Faustus' blood because blood contracts are binding forever.

  Faustus winces at the thought.  Left to himself, he might
never write such a document.  But Mephistophilis is there to
give him "moral" support.  Just put up with this nasty little
cut, the spirit tells him, and "then be thou as great as
Lucifer."

  Taken at face value, this remark constitutes a glowing
promise.  Sign this contract, Faustus, and you'll become as
powerful as the monarch of hell.  But the comment is ironic.
Mephistophilis sounds as if he's deriding Faustus' ambitions.
The spirit really seems to be saying, "you think you'll be as
great as Lucifer, but just wait and see."

  Does Mephistophilis deliver his line sincerely?  Or is there
irony in his voice?  If so, he may be giving Faustus one last
warning to back off while he can.  How does the offer sound to
you?

  Faustus, however, is tone deaf to irony.  He suspects no
double meaning in the spirit's words.  And so he prepares to
comply with Lucifer's demands.  But as Faustus stabs his arm to
draw blood, he finds that no blood will run.  It has
mysteriously congealed, preventing him from writing the words
that would give the devil his soul.

  We use the expression "My blood freezes over" to describe a
feeling of great horror.  That is what happens to Faustus.  The
blood in his veins--that which is human to him--freezes at the
sight of this hideous contract with hell.  Mephistophilis acts
quickly.  He comes running with a grate of hot coals to warm
Faustus' blood and to set it flowing again, so that the contract
can be completed.

  NOTE:  BLOOD IMAGERY Hold onto this image of flowing blood.
You will see it again in Act V, when Faustus has a vision of
Christ's blood streaming in the night sky and knows that one
precious drop of it would save his lost soul.

  As Mephistophilis snatches up the coals, he winks at the
audience and whispers, "What will not I do to obtain his soul!"
Clearly the spirit has changed his tune.  Earlier in the play,
Mephistophilis did his best to stop Faustus from damning
himself.  At this point, he seems eager for Faustus' ruin.  How
do you explain it?

  You can argue that Mephistophilis is simply doing his job.
Since Faustus has insisted on this unholy bargain, the spirit
has no choice but to hold him to it.  Or you may feel that
Mephistophilis is at last showing his true fiendish colors.  The
spirit is eager for Faustus' damnation because all demons want
to add more notches to their score of souls garnered for hell.
Mephistophilis is not the most consistent of characters.  You
will have to decide what motivates him at various points in the
play.

  Faustus has finished writing his contract.  "It is
completed," he says wearily, as he lays down his pen.
"Consummatum est." Another blasphemy!  These are the words of
Christ on the cross, rolling casually off the tongue of a man
who has just put his bloody signature on a contract with the
devil.  Suddenly, Faustus has a hallucination.  He sees writing
on his arm.  "Fly, man," the inscription reads.  Run for your
life.  ("Man." Why "man"?  Wasn't this contract supposed to make
Faustus immortal?)

  Mephistophilis is prepared for this sort of emergency.
Undoubtedly, he's played scenes like this before.  He arranges a
diversion, something to take Faustus' mind off the perils of the
contract and focus attention instead on the delights it will
bring.  Mephistophilis summons devils who enter bearing a crown
and ermine robes.  The devils dance around Faustus, offering him
these symbols of power.  Then they depart.

  Faustus is delighted with the royal treatment and with the
thought that he can summon such demons at any time.  He starts
to hand the contract over to Mephistophilis.  (Notice it's still
in Faustus' possession, one reason why Mephistophilis is
treating Faustus like a king.) Then Faustus halts, claiming that
he'd better read the contract to Mephistophilis since he has
made some changes.

  Faustus, like Lucifer, is something of a legalist.  He has
added articles to the contract, amendments to make sure he gets
full value for the price he is going to pay.  Flattered by
Mephistophilis, Faustus assumes he can dictate his own terms to
hell.

  Most of Faustus' conditions are self-explanatory.  They list
the terms of an agreement already understood.  Mephistophilis
will be at Faustus' beck and call.  He will appear in any shape
that Faustus commands.  (No more unpleasant surprises like that
dragon.)

  But there is a new condition.  Faustus shall be "a spirit in
form and substance." In other words, he will take on the
physical attributes of a demon.  Like Mephistophilis, Faustus
will be able to walk invisible or fly through the air.

  Does this mean that Faustus actually becomes a demon?  If so,
then he is lost from this point on in the play.  If not, then he
still has a chance, however remote, of being saved.  It is
difficult, looking back across the space of four hundred years,
to be sure of the exact rules of Renaissance demonology.  But
most scholars think that under the terms of the contract,
Faustus forfeits his human body but keeps his human soul.

  Faustus returns to the subject that fascinates him:  the
nature and whereabouts of hell.  Notice that Faustus always asks
about hell after he's made an irrevocable step toward hell.  He
leaps first, then looks to see where he has landed.

  Mephistophilis expands on what he's said before.  Hell is a
place without limits.  It's wherever the damned happen to be.
The spirit speaks matter-of-factly now.  He's no longer worried
about frightening Faustus.  The contract is signed.  What's done
is done.  But Faustus doesn't believe it.  Come, come, he says.
You're making this up.  Hell's an "old wives' tale." There is no
life after death.  We die with our last breath.  And that's the
end of it.

  Mephistophilis is amused in an ironic sort of way.  Why,
Faustus, he asks, what do you think you have just signed?  A
contract with hell.  Then his amusement dies, and his irony
turns bitter.  You think there's no hell, do you?  "Aye, think
so still, till experience change thy mind."

  As Mephistophilis points out, Faustus is being illogical.
Faustus has asked for a contract with the devil in order to
enjoy the powers that hell can give him.  But if there is no
hell, then there is no contract and no demon spirit in the
room.

  Faustus, the great logician of Wittenberg, shouldn't need
Mephistophilis to point out the flaws in his reasoning.  He
should see for himself that this argument is not sound.  So why
doesn't he?  Perhaps Faustus is too fierce a skeptic to believe
in a hell that he can't see or touch.  Faustus prides himself on
being a scientist.  He prefers concrete facts to abstract ideas.
And the hell described by Mephistophilis is an undefined place.
In fact, it makes Faustus think of life itself:

  Nay, and this be hell, I'll willingly be damned.

  What, sleeping, eating, walking, and disputing?

  On the other hand, Faustus may be less a skeptic than an
opportunist.  That is, he may change his beliefs to suit his
desires of the moment.  Faustus seems willing enough to accept
hell, provided that hell promises to make him a king like
Lucifer.  He only doubts hell's existence when it looms up
before him as a place of punishment.

  NOTE:  CONCEPTS OF HELL In this dialogue between Faustus and
Mephistophilis, you can see the clash of old and new ideas that
troubled Marlowe's generation.  Coming out of the Middle Ages
was the orthodox vision of hell, the pit of quenchless fire and
pitchfork-carrying devils.  Then there was the newer, more
subtle definition of hell offered by Mephistophilis.  Hell was a
gray, twilight place from which God had withdrawn his presence.
And finally, there was the atheistic view, espoused by Faustus
in this scene.  The only hell we could ever know was the hell of
this world.

  Faustus, however, is not disposed to linger on the subject.
Now that he has his contract signed, he is eager to test his
powers and get some questions answered.  He turns to
Mephistophilis with his first demand.  I'm a lusty man, he says.
I need a woman to share my bed.  Get me a wife.

  Mephistophilis is on the spot.  He can't meet Faustus' first
demand because marriage is a sacrament, a holy rite of the
church, and sacraments lie outside his jurisdiction.

  When Faustus insists on having this wish, Mephistophilis
summons a female demon, who arrives hissing and sparking like a
firecracker.  Faustus dismisses her as a "hot whore." He's
beginning to see that hell keeps its promises in strangely
unpleasant ways.

  Never mind a wife, Mephistophilis consoles him.  I'll give
you the mistress of your heart's desire.  And better yet, I'll
give you books that will reveal to you the hidden secrets of
Nature.  I'll show you everything you've always wanted to know
about the trees and the stars.

  Faustus reaches greedily for the fabulous volumes handed to
him by the spirit.  But as he leafs through the printed pages,
he finds that they contain only gibberish.  This is worse than
Wittenberg.  "O, thou art deceived!" he cries.

  Remember we asked a little while back, "what does Faustus
really want, knowledge or sensual pleasure?" In this scene,
Faustus reaches for both, only to be disappointed on both
counts.  But while he's merely annoyed by Mephistophilis'
failure to produce a wife, he is cut to the quick by the
spirit's fraudulent volumes.  It's this latter deception that
wrings from Faustus a cry of anguish.

  NOTE:  A MISSING SCENE?  Between Act II, Scenes I and II,
there is probably a lost scene in which Robin, the clown, steals
one of Faustus' conjuring books and runs away from Wagner to
find work at an inn.  We will find him there in Act II, Scene
III.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT II, SCENE II

  Faustus is in his study, looking at the night sky.  The sight
of the heavens lit with stars reminds him of the glories he has
sacrificed.  Faustus' first instinct is to lash out at
Mephistophilis.  You did this to me, he tells the spirit
angrily.  Mephistophilis calmly denies the charge.  No, Faustus.
It was your own doing, not mine.  Do you agree with the spirit?
Is Faustus being unfair?  Mephistophilis understands and tries
to comfort Faustus with the thought that heaven isn't such a
wonderful place after all.

  Prove your theory, demands Faustus the philosopher.  And the
spirit gives him logical proof in an unexpected burst of
enthusiasm for man.  After all, heaven was made for man.
Therefore, man must be "more excellent."

  You might expect Faustus to agree with Mephistophilis.
Faustus is just the type to put man at center stage.  His whole
rationale for denying God in the first place was his belief in
human potential, human greatness--a typically Renaissance ideal.
Now, if ever, is the time for a speech like Hamlet's "O, what a
piece of work is man!" But you don't get such a speech from
Faustus.  What you get from this humanist-scholar is a purely
Christian impulse to renounce magic and repent.  Can God forgive
him, hardened sinner that he is?  As Faustus debates this vital
question with himself, the angels come on stage for the third
time.

  The Good Angel assures Faustus that God will still forgive
him.  But, as usual, the Evil Angel has the stronger argument.
God can't pity you, Faustus.  You're a spirit, a demon.
(Remember the terms of the contract.) You're not even a human
being any more.

  God would pity me, even if I were the devil himself, Faustus
retorts, using strange language for an atheist.  That is, God
would pity me, if I'd repent.  Ah, the Evil Angel throws out his
parting shot.  "But Faustus never shall repent." It turns out to
be an accurate prophecy.  Why doesn't Faustus repent?  It's one
of the great puzzles of the play.  This is his second attempt at
repentance and his second refusal.  What is standing in his
way?

  Maybe Faustus isn't very sincere about repentance, and all
this talk is lip service only.  Some readers feel this way.
Certainly there are traits inherent in Faustus' character that
make repentance difficult for him.  Pride is a problem.  Faustus
is too arrogant to readily admit his errors.  Appetite also
trips him up.  Faustus lusts after the gleam of silk and the
whiteness of a woman's arms.  But God, in this still
half-medieval world, demands austerity.  For Faustus, penitence
would mean the hair-shirt under a monkish robe and sandals in
the winter snow.

  Maybe the contract is the big stumbling block, as Lucifer
intended.  Faustus has told the Evil Angel that God can still
pity him.  But he doesn't really seem to believe it.  Whenever
Faustus thinks about salvation now, he is thrown into despair.
He contemplates suicide, as if to rush to his inevitable fate.

  All the while, Mephistophilis spins his web, pulling Faustus
toward hell with his sweet magic tricks.  The spirit gives
Faustus just enough pleasure to keep him wondering if there's
more.  As the angels depart, Faustus relishes the memory of
beautiful, ghostly concerts in his study.  By Mephistophilis'
arrangement, the great bards of ancient Greece have strummed
their lyres for Faustus alone.

  Perhaps, Faustus reasons, there's something to this diabolic
life after all.  Come, Mephistophilis, he says, throwing off his
mood of depression, tell me about the stars.

  NOTE:  MEPHISTOPHILIS' ASTRONOMY In the discussion that
follows, Mephistophilis presents Faustus with the common
medieval view of the universe.  It is known as the Ptolemaic
system, in contrast to the Copernican view that we still accept
today.  In the Ptolemaic system, the Earth stood at the center
of the universe, with the sun, planets, and stars circling
around it.  The universe was thought to be made up of nine
concentric spheres, ascending from the Earth right up to God's
Heaven.  The spheres were those of the moon, Mercury, Venus, the
sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the stars, and the primum mobile or
first mover, the sphere which set all the other spheres in
motion.  Each sphere was supposed to have an angel presiding
over it.  In the text of the play, Faustus refers to the angel
as a "dominion or intelligentia," a ruling power or
intelligence.  Beyond the spheres was God's empyrean, a heaven
bathed in light.  Some people believed (it is the meaning of
Faustus' question, "Is there not coelum igneum, etc.?") that
there were eleven spheres, adding a heaven of fire and one of
crystal to the scheme.  It was a nice, orderly universe, with
the spheres nestled in each other's arms, making sweet music as
they turned.  What Mephistophilis can't help describing to
Faustus is a majestic sweep of stars and spheres that could only
have been imagined by the mind of God.

  Notice that Mephistophilis volunteers very little information
about the heavens.  Faustus must pry for information from the
spirit.  "Tush!  These are freshmen's suppositions," the scholar
protests.  What Mephistophilis makes such a great show of
disclosing, Faustus has learned years ago in a course called
Introduction to Astronomy.  Ask yourself why the spirit is being
so evasive.  Does he begrudge Faustus a share of his secret
knowledge?  Or does he sense that the stars may be a dangerous
topic of conversation?

  Faced with this coy cosmic voyager, Faustus feels a
tremendous sense of frustration.  Imagine a modern scientist
talking to a visitor from outer space who knows--but who won't
say--what a black hole really looks like or what kinds of life
exist among the stars.  Faustus wants to know, for example, why
such phenomena as eclipses occur at varying intervals, if the
whole system of spheres turns on a single axle-tree.  The sun
and the moon, he reasons, should always be in the same relative
positions, as they spin around the earth.

  Mephistophilis hedges.  He retreats into Latin and reels off
a pat academic formula, arguing that the spheres turn at
different velocities.

  "Well, I am answered," mutters Faustus, meaning that he isn't
answered at all.  Here is hell again, dealing with him in half
measures and half-kept promises.  But Faustus grasps the real
point of this lesson in astronomy.  He's been wondering in
silence how this whole great system of spheres came into being.
And now he asks Mephistophilis, "Who made the world?"

  The spirit has seen this coming, and he absolutely refuses to
answer the question.  But Faustus hardly needs Mephistophilis to
tell him.  God made the world, the God he doubted, the God whose
existence is proven by the spirit's grim silence.  If there is
no God, why should His name be banned in the kingdom of hell?

  Forget about Heaven, Mephistophilis warns.  Think about hell,
Faustus.  That's where you're going.  "Remember this!" he calls
out while waving the blood-signed contract in Faustus' face.
But Faustus has finally, inevitably, broken down.  He falls to
his knees calling to Christ, his Savior.  Only it isn't Christ
who answers Faustus' call.  It is Lucifer who emerges from a
trap door on stage, with Belzebub by his side.  You're mine,
Faustus, the monarch of hell proclaims.  You gave your soul to
me, and I have come to claim you.

  Lucifer's appearance comes at a highly sensitive moment.
Just as Faustus cries out to God, the arch-fiend arrives.  Some
spectators might wish that Marlowe had sent the Good Angel
flying to Faustus' side, but instead he sends Lucifer, restless
with purpose.

  What's the message?  Is Marlowe saying that people who play
with matches get burned?  Faustus has chosen to unleash the
forces of hell.  And now he falls victim to powers beyond his
control.  Or is Marlowe making a broader and more devastating
statement about the presence of demons and the absence of God in
this world?  Men cry out in need.  And God stays in his heaven
silent, while the devil pays house calls.

  Faustus takes one look at his visitors and caves in.  This
man, with dreams of being a king, trembles like a slave before
the regent of hell.  Faustus starts to babble outrageous things
about pulling down churches and murdering priests.

  Lucifer is pleased.  Now that he is again sure of Faustus, he
arranges some entertainment to take the unhappy scholar's mind
off himself.  This is the second diversion hell has created for
Faustus.  In this play, diversions are like tranquilizers.  They
are hell's handy remedy for sorrow and stress.

  Lucifer and Faustus witness a pageant of the Seven Deadly
Sins.  Pride, the sin which felled the angels, is the leader of
the pack.  The rest follow in a grimly comic review of human
vice.

  NOTE:  THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS The Seven Deadly Sins are Pride,
Avarice, Envy, Wrath, Gluttony, Lust, and Sloth.  These were
called "the deadly sins" because, in church dogma, all other
sins were supposed to stem from them.  Marlowe borrowed the idea
of the Seven Deadly Sins from the medieval morality plays.
Often, in medieval drama, the sins provided a comic interlude,
as they do here.  At the very least, they were human traits
which all spectators could identify in themselves.

  Faustus converses with all the sins, but especially with
Gluttony.  Can you imagine why Gluttony might be his favorite?
After hearing their stories, he dismisses them with a wave of
the hand, as if he saw in this parade of vices no particular
application to himself.

  In spite of their crassness, the Seven Deadly Sins are a
thorough delight to Faustus.  "O this feeds my soul!" he exults,
when the last of them goes from the stage.

  Why do some regard this pageant as a turning point for
Faustus?  One clue to help you phrase your answer is that we
hear no more about God from Faustus until the very end of the
play.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT II, SCENE III

  Robin has stolen one of Faustus' conjuring books and is
feeling very self-important.  His job is to care for the horses
at the inn, but he can't be bothered with such trifles.  He
orders Dick, another clown, to walk the horses for him.  (In
some editions of the play, Dick is called Rafe or Ralph.)

  The semi-literate Robin pores over his book, breaking into a
sweat as he tries to figure it out.  "A by itself," he drones,
repeating a child's formula for learning the alphabet.  Then he
manages to recognize a word.  "T...  h...  e." Robin is making
progress, when Dick saunters over to see what the book is all
about.  A conjuring book, ha, says Dick.  I bet you can't read a
word of it.

  Can't I though?  Robin retorts.  I'll work such magic that I
won't need a job.  I'll live like a king, and I'll get you free
wine in every tavern in Wittenberg.

  This is magic Dick can understand.  He's won over by Robin's
grand promises.  The two clowns go off together to get roaring
drunk, leaving the horses unexercised and the devil to pay the
bill.

  Magic, you see, has a strange effect on people.  In Act I,
when Wagner learned how to conjure, it was no longer good enough
to be Faustus' servant.  Wagner wanted to have a servant of his
own.  Now Robin has similar ideas.  He doesn't see why he should
slave for an innkeeper when he can summon a demon to provide all
his wants.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE CHORUS

  The Chorus returns to fill you in on Faustus' activities over
the years.  Go back for a moment to the Chorus' speech in Act I.
Has his attitude toward Faustus changed?  In the opening speech
of the play, the Chorus seemed to disapprove of Faustus.  Now
you just may hear a note of admiration in his voice.

  Look at the exploits the Chorus has to relate.  Faustus--who
couldn't get a straight answer from Mephistophilis about the
heavens--now flies among the stars himself in a dragon-powered
chariot.  Faustus soars higher than an astronaut, right up to
the ninth sphere of the universe.  And while he's up there, he
gets a chance to correct the maps of Earth.  These are high
adventures, indeed.  For once, hell has lived up to its
promises.

  Marlowe now maneuvers Faustus' chariot into a landing pattern
and brings the scholar-magician skimming down over the Alps into
Rome.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT III, SCENE I

  NOTE:  ROME AND THE ELIZABETHAN ENGLISHMAN In Elizabethan
England, Rome was the target of many criticisms.  In those days,
the Vatican wasn't just a religious institution.  It was a
political power and a hotbed of European Catholic plots against
Protestant England.  For years, Rome had incited English
Catholics to rebel against Queen Elizabeth and to place the
Roman Catholic, Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne.  Rome had
also been involved in Philip of Spain's 1588 attempt to invade
England by sea.  Not surprisingly, Elizabethan audiences roared
their approval whenever Catholic clergymen were portrayed as
greedy monsters or as stuttering idiots.  This scene, then,
offers a sample of Catholic-baiting.  But first, Marlowe
provides an interesting exchange between Faustus and
Mephistophilis in their airborne chariot.

  Faustus is calmer now than when you saw him last.  He has
come to terms with his situation.  He intends to make the best
of a bad bargain.  He tells Mephistophilis that all he wants is
to get the most pleasure possible out of his remaining time on
Earth.  The spirit approves.  He praises Faustus' attitude.
There's no use, he agrees, in crying over spilt milk.
Mephistophilis has known for centuries that life means the
graceful acceptance of limits.  Now, Faustus seems to know it
too.

  What kind of relationship do you sense between Faustus and
Mephistophilis in this scene?  Faustus calls the spirit, "Sweet
Mephistophilis, gentle Mephistophilis" in a way that could mean
affection--or fear.  And the spirit seems happy, in an austere
way, to be sightseeing at Faustus' side.  Is there a real bond
between the two?  Or only a false camaraderie that dissolves the
instant Faustus defies the spirit's authority?  What evidence
can you offer in support of your opinion?

  Faustus and Mephistophilis have come to Rome at a time of
papal festivities.  The Pope is celebrating his victory over a
rival.  (The collision between the Pope and Bruno, described in
this scene, belongs only to the 1616 text.) A magnificent papal
procession enters.  The red-robed cardinals carry great jewelled
crosses.  The dark-robed monks and friars chant their prayers.
The Pope follows, leading a prisoner in chains.  The prisoner is
Saxon Bruno, a German pretender to the papal throne.  In a
ruthless display of power, the Pope climbs to his throne on his
conquered rival's back.

  NOTE:  ON POPES AND KINGS During the Middle Ages, Roman
Catholic pontiffs were often at war with secular monarchs and
with each other.  Sometimes there were two rival candidates for
the papacy, and neither was willing to back down gracefully.  So
the question was settled by force of arms, with secular kings
backing one candidate or the other.  That's what happens in
Doctor Faustus.  King Raymond of Hungary has supported Pope
Adrian, while the Holy Roman Emperor (a German king despite his
fancy title) has backed the Antipope Bruno.  When a ruler like
the Holy Roman Emperor defied the Pope, the pontiff had a weapon
to use.  It was called the "interdict," a papal curse laid upon
rulers and all the people in their domains.  While the interdict
lasted, all church sacraments were denied throughout the entire
kingdom.  That meant no one could be married by a priest, no one
could receive holy communion, and none of the dying could
receive last rites.  After a few grim years of this treatment,
kings sometimes bowed to the pressure of their people and
submitted to the church.  When Adrian arrogantly threatens to
depose the Emperor "and curse all the people that submit to
him," he is talking about using the interdict.

  Faustus decides, for sheer mischief's sake, to intervene in
this clash of the pontiffs.  He will prick a hole in proud
Adrian's balloon.  As the cardinals troop off in solemn conclave
to decide Bruno's fate, Faustus sends Mephistophilis to put them
all to sleep.  While the cardinals snore away, Faustus and
Mephistophilis tiptoe among them and steal two of their gowns.
Disguised as cardinals in brilliant red silk, Faustus and the
spirit appear before the Pope.  Dolefully they declare Bruno to
be a Lollard (a Protestant heretic) and recommend that he be
burnt at the stake.

  The Pope agrees.  To Mephistophilis' glee, he and Faustus
receive the papal blessing.  "Was never devil thus blessed
before!" the spirit laughs.  Faustus and Mephistophilis are
given charge of the prisoner Bruno and are told to lock him up
in a tower.  But they have other plans for the papal pretender.
They spirit him over the Alps to the safety of the Holy Roman
Emperor's court.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT III, SCENE II

  As part of his victory celebration, the Pope is holding a
banquet.  Servants enter to lay out sumptuous food.  Faustus and
Mephistophilis reappear on stage.  They have shed their borrowed
cardinals' robes and now make themselves invisible in order to
wreak havoc at the feast.

  The Pope ushers in his guests of honor, King Raymond of
Hungary and the Archbishop of Reims.  (In the 1604 text, the
Pope's guest is the Cardinal of Lorraine.) One of the Vatican
cardinals timidly interrupts.  Excuse me, your holiness, he
asks.  Don't you want to hear our decision about the heretic
Bruno?  I've already heard it, the Pope answers, dismissing the
cardinal with a wave of his hand.  When the poor cardinal
persists, the Pope suspects treachery.  What do you mean you
didn't pass sentence on Bruno?  And what do you mean you can't
produce the prisoner?  the Pope demands.

  The Pope has good reason to be upset, but being the perfect
host, he has the cardinal hauled off in chains without
interrupting the feast.  Graciously, he offers a choice bit of
meat to King Raymond, explaining that the beautiful roast had
been sent to him by the Archbishop of Milan.

  As Raymond reaches out with his fork, the meat suddenly
disappears.  It is snatched away from the Pope's hand by the
invisible Faustus.  The startled pontiff looks around, but of
course he sees nothing.  He tries again with another "dainty
dish," then a cup of wine.  Both disappear in the same
astonishing way.

  "Lollards!" screams the Pope.  (Those wicked Protestants are
capable of anything.) The Archbishop suspects a ghost, and the
Pope agrees.  To exorcise the evil spirit, the Pope frantically
crosses himself.

  Faustus, annoyed by the holy sign sprinkled like salt all
over his food, boxes the Pope on the ear.  The Pope, wailing
that he has been slain, is carried off by a group of distracted
cardinals.  The feast breaks up in disarray.  The friars come on
stage to curse the unseen spirit in their midst with bell, book,
and candle.

  NOTE:  THE FRIARS' DIRGE Bell, book, and candle were the
symbolic elements of the rite of excommunication.  They
reflected the last words of the solemn ceremony:  "Do the book,
quench the candle, ring the bell." The friars' dirge that closes
this scene is a grimly comic echo of the Black Mass performed by
Faustus in Act II, Scene I.  Faustus turns the phrase bell,
book, and candle "forward and backward," just as he has done
earlier with the letters that make up the name of God.

  The Vatican banquet is sheer slapstick comedy, and many
readers are disturbed by its presence in the play.  You have
moved from the flickering hell fires of the early scenes into
the world of Laurel and Hardy.  After making you shudder at his
black magician, Marlowe suddenly invites you to guffaw.

  What is Marlowe's purpose?  Is he demeaning Faustus,
deliberately making his hero trivial in your eyes?  Look,
Marlowe may be saying, here's a man who bargained away his soul
for superhuman power.  And what does he do with that power, once
he gets it?  He uses it to play silly tricks on the Pope.

  If this is Marlowe's message, then this scene has a Christian
moral.  Faustus takes up with the devil and is debased by the
company he keeps.  You can trace Faustus' decline, within the
act itself, from the pursuits of star travel to his mindless
clowning at the Vatican feast.

  Other readers see a different interpretation of Marlowe's
sudden change from seriousness to farce.  The real clown of the
Vatican banquet, they note, isn't Faustus at all.  It's the
Pope.  If anything, Marlowe is making an anti-Christian
statement.  He's saying that churchmen are pompous fools.  He
uses a Roman Catholic example because it was open season on
Catholics in the England of the 1590s.  But the truth is, he
means all churchmen, Catholics and Protestants alike.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT III, SCENE III

  At last sight, Robin was in search of a tavern where he
promised his sidekick Dick to conjure up spirits, both the kind
you work magic with and the kind you drink.  Now you find the
two clowns fleeing for their lives, with the vintner (or
wine-seller) in hot pursuit.  Robin has stolen a wine cup which
he pawns off, in a bit of stage fooling, on Dick.  When
challenged by the vintner, Robin is outraged and plays innocent.
Cup?  Never saw your cup in my life.  Frisk me, if you like.
Like Faustus, Robin has acquired the art of making wine cups
vanish into thin air.

  The vintner, sure of his man but cheated of his evidence,
grows angrier by the minute.  Feeling the situation get out of
hand, Robin whips out his conjuring book.  Abracadabra, he
mutters (or the Latin equivalent).  The spell works, and
Mephistophilis appears.

  Robin feels a rush of elation, but Mephistophilis is
thoroughly disgusted.  Here he is, servant to the great prince
of hell, whipped around the world at the whim of these ruffians.
He will teach the clowns a lesson.  With a wave of his wand,
Mephistophilis turns Robin into an ape and Dick into a dog.  The
pair will make up a circus act, the ape riding on the dog's back
and performing silly tricks.

  There are penalties for meddling with the powers of hell,
though the clowns are too thoughtless to feel them.  Robin and
Dick scamper off stage, apparently delighted with their fate.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  THE CHORUS

  The Chorus gives you a glimpse of the human side of Faustus.
His friends have missed him while he's been away--which may seem
odd since Faustus has seemed like a loner.

  After his travels abroad, Faustus stops home for a rest.  All
this flying about the world has proved to be bone-wearying.
Magic or no magic, Faustus is tired.

  Faustus' friends greet him with affection and awe.  Here's a
man who knows the heavens first-hand.  Faustus walks the streets
of Wittenberg with an aura of star dust about him.  His fame as
an astrologer (astronomer) spreads throughout the land.  He is
even invited to the Holy Roman Emperor's court.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE I

  The court is in a state of excitement.  The Anti-pope Bruno
has just materialized from nowhere.  (Remember Faustus and
Mephistophilis whisked him out of Rome.) And Faustus follows
hard on Bruno's heels with the promise of some fabulous
entertainment.

  Faustus has told the Emperor he will raise the shade (that
is, ghost) of Alexander the Great.  Faustus intends to summon
from the underworld the ghost of the greatest conqueror the
world has ever known.

  NOTE:  ALEXANDER THE GREAT Alexander was king of Greece and
Macedonia in the fourth century B.C.  He was called Alexander
the Great because, during his brief reign, he extended Greek
rule all the way to Egypt and India.  He was a young, handsome,
and fearless ruler, considered by the ancient world to be almost
a god.  Darius of Persia was Alexander's enemy.  The two kings
clashed in battle when Darius' army blocked Alexander's path to
conquest in the East.  Alexander's paramour or lover is unnamed.
But she is apparently the lovely Thais, whose beauty was
celebrated in ancient Greek poetry and song.

  Martino and Frederick, two gentlemen-in-waiting, are bursting
with expectation.  Nothing like this has ever been seen in
Germany before.  But there are skeptics about the court.
Benvolio, in a nightcap, recovering from a hangover, yawns at
the whole business.  Haven't they all had enough of magic
lately, what with Bruno's whirlwind arrival from Rome?  How can
you bear to miss the show?  Frederick asks Benvolio.  Well, I
suppose I'll watch it from my window here, Benvolio replies
without enthusiasm.  That is, if I don't go back to bed first.
(The entire Benvolio episode is found only in the 1616 text of
Doctor Faustus.)

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE II

  The Emperor praises Faustus abundantly for his role in
Bruno's rescue.  "Wonder of men, renowned magician, /
Thrice-learned Faustus, welcome." The Emperor speaks the
flowery, extravagant language of the court, and Faustus responds
in kind.

  The magician promises the Emperor that his magic charms will
"pierce through / The ebon gates of ever-burning hell."
Benvolio, at his window, sneers at Faustus' words.  What a
silly, transparent boast!  Admittedly, Faustus' language is
pompous.  But is he really boasting?  He does mean to raid the
underworld for Alexander's ghost.  (Faustus, you recall, makes
no distinction between the classic underworld, Elysium, and the
fiery Christian hell.)

  When the Emperor asks to behold Alexander the Great and the
fabulous Thais, Benvolio yawns again.  If Faustus can produce
these two, he mutters to himself, let me be turned into a stag.
Benvolio's remark is meant as an aside.  But Faustus overhears
it.  He promises the skeptical knight that he shall get his
wish.

  Faustus holds everyone in court but Benvolio in a state of
breathless expectation.  Trumpets sound.  Alexander the Great
and Darius enter with drawn swords.  Alexander slays his enemy
and places Darius' crown on Thais' lovely brow.

  The Emperor is ecstatic.  He jumps up from his throne and
rushes over to embrace Alexander.  Before he can do so, he is
stopped by Faustus' cautioning hand.  The figures he has
summoned, Faustus warns, are "but shadows, not substantial."
They can be seen, but not touched, nor can they be spoken to.
(Remember Faustus' warning when Helen's spirit appears in Act
V.)

  The Emperor wants to prove the reality of these ghosts.
Since he cannot touch them, he has another test in mind.  He has
heard that Thais had a single imperfection, a mole on her neck.
May he look?  Yes, the mole is there.  Faustus has raised Thais
as she was, warts and all, accurate to the last detail.

  Yet these shades seem only half real.  Although they are
Alexander and Thais to the life, they are airy things which
cannot interact with flesh-and-blood human beings.  They play
their silent parts as if they were inside a thick glass cage.
So perhaps they have entertainment value only, and Faustus is
wasting his vast power on a fairly trivial trick.

  The Emperor is impressed.  Are you?  You will have to decide
whether this feat of Faustus' is just a circus act or a display
of power worthy of a great wizard.

  Faustus now turns his attention to Benvolio.  Look, he points
at the knight, snoring at his windowsill.  Benvolio's head is
weighed down by a heavy pair of stag's horns.

  NOTE:  BENVOLIO'S HORNS In Elizabethan England, horns on a
man's head were a sign that he was a cuckold.  In other words,
his wife had been unfaithful to him.  The Elizabethans did not
sympathize with cuckolds.  They regarded wronged husbands as
figures of ridicule.  Benvolio's plight is terrible, indeed.
Not only has he lost his normal appearance, he's become an
object of raillery for the entire court.  Those horns are
Benvolio's punishment for skepticism.  Faustus, a skeptic
himself on certain subjects, does not take it kindly when people
disbelieve his magic.

  As Benvolio awakes and feels his head with horror, Faustus
addresses him with icy mirth.  "O, say not so, sir.  The Doctor
has no skill, / No art, no cunning" to put a pair of stag horns
on your head.  Faustus is really rubbing it in, when the Emperor
intervenes.  He requests that Faustus (an Emperor's request is a
command) restore Benvolio to his normal shape.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE III

  Benvolio promises to take revenge on Faustus.  He convinces
his friends, Martino and Frederick, to help him.  They lay
ambush for Faustus in a wood.

  Either Faustus guesses their plans or his demons tip him off,
for he enters the wood wearing a false head on his shoulders.
The ambushers attack and strike off what they assume to be
Faustus' head.  They admire their grisly trophy and plan to
wreak all sorts of indignities on it.

  Faustus, of course, isn't dead at all.  He's merely lying in
wait for Benvolio, Frederick, and Martino to make complete fools
of themselves.  Then he picks himself off the ground, keeping
his hood pulled down over his shoulders, and speaks to the
terrified conspirators.  Where, they wonder in panic, is his
voice coming from?

  The "headless" magician informs the appalled knights that
their efforts to kill him have been in vain.  For twenty-four
years, until his contract with the devil expires, he can't be
killed or injured.  He leads a charmed life.

  Faustus summons his spirits (notice there are three of them
now) to drag the ambushers through the wood.  Throw Martino into
a lake, he orders.  Drag Frederick through the briars.  Hurl
Benvolio off a cliff.

  As you've probably noticed, there's a lot of roughhouse and
ghoulish stage business in this scene.  What do you think is the
point of it all?  This second encounter with Benvolio doesn't
advance the plot, and it doesn't tell you anything new about
Faustus.  You've seen him get the better of Benvolio before.  If
you can't think of a point, then you'll understand why some
readers suspect this scene isn't Marlowe's.  The mindless
horror, plus those additional demons, may point to a
collaborator's work.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE IV

  Benvolio, Martino, and Frederick have taken quite a beating
at the hands of Faustus' spirits.  They drag themselves out of
the mud and briars to find that each of them now wears a pair of
stag horns on his head.  They steal away to Benvolio's castle,
where they can hide their shame and live unobserved by the
world.  The horns are permanent now, since there is no merciful
Emperor around to make Faustus take them off.

  NOTE:  ON MAGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS If you have read
Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, you may want to compare
Benvolio's fate with that of Bottom the weaver.  In
Shakespeare's play, the mischievous fairies give Bottom an ass'
head to wear through the long summer night.  But in the morning,
they restore Bottom to his original appearance.  In contrast,
Benvolio and his friends are left to wear their stag horns
forever.  Shakespeare, with his love of harmony and his
tenderness even for fools, restores the world to normal.
Marlowe, perhaps a crueler spirit, leaves undone his magician's
devilish work.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE V

  A horse-courser, or horse-trader, approaches Faustus with an
offer to buy his horse.  In Elizabethan times, horse-traders
were known for being cheats and sharp dealers.  The trader
offers Faustus forty dollars (German coins) for his horse but
apparently the price is low.  Faustus suggests fifty, but the
horse-trader pleads poverty, so Faustus agrees to the deal.

  As the trader starts to lead the horse away, Faustus stops
him with a warning.  Ride the horse anywhere, but not into
water.  Why not?  asks the suspicious trader.  Faustus offers no
explanation, but the reason is simple.  The horse is a demon
spirit which will vanish in water.

  The trader suspects some hidden power in the horse that
Faustus didn't want to reveal.  He rides the animal into a pond.
Two seconds later, he's left sitting on top of a wet bundle of
hay.

  So the sharp dealer is outsmarted.  Was Faustus being honest
with the man when he told him not to ride the horse into water?
Or was he deliberately arousing the trader's curiosity, knowing
full well the man would take the first opportunity to satisfy
it?  The question is of interest because it makes you wonder how
much humanity is left in Faustus.  As soon as the trader
departs, Faustus has one of those moments of introspection which
occur so rarely now.  "What art thou, Faustus, but a man
condemned to die?" Possibly, Faustus has remembered that we are
all human beings condemned to die.  Perhaps he has felt a
fleeting sense of brotherhood with the poor trader.

  More likely, however, Faustus has intended all along to cheat
the horse dealer.  He's devised this elaborate trick to distract
his thoughts from approaching death.  The faster Faustus runs,
the less time he has to think.  Whenever he stops his feverish
activity, as he does for a moment now, the terror comes upon
him.  Faustus escapes his fear this time by falling asleep.

  The wet horse-trader returns in a rage to demand his money
back.  He finds Faustus asleep on a chair, and he tugs at the
magician's leg to wake him up.  To the trader's horror, Faustus'
leg comes off.  (Remember, Faustus has a demon's body now, and
he can play macabre tricks with it.) The trader flees in terror
with Faustus yelling "Murder!" at the top of his lungs.  Faustus
roars with laughter at his joke.  He has the trader's money, and
the trader has no horse.

  Is this scene funny?  Are you supposed to laugh with Faustus
at the horse-trader's rout?  Or are you supposed to be shocked
and saddened at the level to which Faustus has sunk?

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE VI

  The horse-trader meets the clowns, Robin and Dick, in a
nearby tavern.  (This episode is found only in the 1616 text.)
The trader is still fuming about his vanished horse.  He tells
his story, but he changes a few details to make himself out a
hero.

  Know what I did to pay Faustus back for his nasty trick?  the
horse-trader confides.  I attacked him while he was sleeping,
and I yanked off his leg.  No kidding?  says Dick.  I'm glad to
hear it.  That damn demon of his made me look like an ape.

  A carter or cart driver joins the party.  He has a weird tale
of his own to tell.  The carter has met Faustus on the road to
Wittenberg, where the magician offered him a small sum of money
for all the hay he could eat.  The carter, realizing that men
don't eat hay, accepted the sum, whereupon Faustus devoured his
whole wagon-load.  It's really a grotesque story.  Faustus'
runaway appetites seem to have turned him into a fairy-tale
monster, like a troll.

  The carter, the horse-trader, and the clowns continue to
drink ale.  Full of false courage, they decide to find the
magician and give him a rough time about his missing leg.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT IV, SCENE VII

  Faustus has been summoned to the Duke of Vanholt's castle,
where he's busy showing off his magic arts.  He asks the
Duchess, who is pregnant, if there is any special food she
craves.  The Duchess admits she has a yen for grapes.  Only it's
January, she sighs.  Snow covers the ground, and the grapes have
long since vanished from the vines.

  Faustus replies graciously that grapes are no trouble at all.
He sends Mephistophilis whizzing around the globe to warmer
climates.  The spirit returns in a twinkling of an eye with a
ripe cluster of grapes.

  This scene asks you to exercise some historical imagination.
In the twentieth century, we have electric freezers for storing
summer fruits and vegetables during the winter.  But the
Elizabethans didn't.  In their eating habits, the Elizabethans
were strictly subject to the seasons.  With that point in mind,
what do you think of Faustus' latest trick?  Is it just some
good-natured hocus-pocus that you shouldn't take too seriously?
Or is Faustus doing something rather impressive by thumbing his
nose at the calendar?

  The issue at stake, as you've probably guessed, is Faustus'
dignity.  Either he retains the heroic stature he had in the
early scenes, or he deteriorates as he wades deeper and deeper
into evil--and into the illusions of Lucifer's hell.

  You can make an argument for Faustus' steady decline that
runs something like this.  In Act II, Faustus wanted knowledge
and questioned Mephistophilis about the stars.  In Act III,
Faustus opted for experience and enjoyed the delights of travel.
But by Act IV, Faustus has become obsessed with food.  All he
can think about is something to eat--hay for himself, "dainties"
for pregnant women, and so on.  In other words, Faustus began
with noble aims, but under the influence of demons, he's gone
steadily downhill.  This leads you back to the play's Christian
moral.

  The rowdy crew from the tavern descends on the castle of
Vanholt.  They bang on the gates and loudly call for Faustus to
show himself.  The Duke is shocked and wants to call the police.
But Faustus says no.  Let the louts be admitted.  We'll all have
a good laugh at their expense.

  The noisy, snow-splattered group invades the quiet stone
halls of the castle.  They are drunk, and the horse-trader calls
loudly for beer.  Then he starts ribbing Faustus about his
supposed wooden leg.  (Remember, the trader boasted in the
tavern about the way he injured Faustus by pulling off his leg.
The horse-trader, the carter, and the clowns all believe Faustus
is crippled.)

  The trader wants to humiliate Faustus by publicizing his
deformity.  Stop denying you have a wooden leg, he explodes.  I
know I pulled your leg off while you were asleep.  Faustus lifts
his robe to reveal two very healthy limbs.  The tavern crew
breaks into noisy protests.  Faustus decides it's time to
silence the fools.  With a wave of his hand, he strikes each of
them dumb in mid-sentence.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT V, SCENE I

  A puzzled Wagner appears on stage.  He suspects his master is
dying.  Faustus has made a will leaving Wagner all his property.
What troubles Wagner is that Faustus doesn't behave as if he is
dying.  He doesn't lie in bed, for instance, and send for the
priest.  Instead, he drinks the night away with his cronies from
Wittenberg.  What's Faustus up to?

  The scholars who are Faustus' guests this night beg him for
some after-dinner entertainment.  They have heard of Faustus'
reputation for raising the shades of the dead.  They want to see
the most beautiful woman who has ever lived--Helen of Troy.

  NOTE:  HELEN OF TROY Paris, son of King Priam of Troy, fell
in love with Helen, wife of the Greek king, Menelaus.  With the
help of the goddess of love, Paris stole Helen from her
husband's side.  The enraged Menelaus called upon the other
Grecian kings to help him avenge his honor and win back his
wife.  The Greeks set sail for Troy, and for ten years, laid
siege to the city (this was the Trojan War).  Finally, unable to
win a decisive battle, they entered Troy by treachery (hidden
inside the Trojan Horse) and burned the city to the ground.  The
Trojan War was the subject of Homer's epic, The Iliad.  The
Renaissance admired Homer above all other poets.  In this scene,
Faustus acts like a truly great teacher by bringing the greatest
epic of the classic world to life.

  As Helen walks across the stage, the scholars sing her
praises.  She is incomparably beautiful, "the pride of Nature's
works." As the scholars' words suggest, Helen represents the
glories of this world, set against the glories of the next.
With her bright eyes and radiant hair, she is Nature's ultimate
challenge to God.

  An Old Man comes on stage now to present God's side of the
case.  You must imagine what he looks like to understand what he
means to Faustus.  The Old Man is stooped over and walks with a
cane.  He has wrinkles, gray hair, and weary eyes.

  Though Faustus is twenty-four years older now than he was at
the start of the play, he shows none of these signs of age.  His
contract with the devil has protected him.  Faustus' demon body
is untouched by the indignities of time.

  Yet the Old Man's eyes shine with a light of faith that
captures Faustus' attention.  When the Old Man speaks, Faustus
listens respectfully.  There is no scoffing from the magician
now.

  The Old Man gently scolds Faustus for the magic which has
lured him away from God.  So far, he tells Faustus, you have
sinned like a man.  "Do not persevere in it like a devil." He
means that Faustus still has a human soul and can be forgiven by
God.

  The Old Man's words tear through the veil of illusion that
magic has created in this Wittenberg house.  They set off a
final struggle in Faustus, though, as in Act II, Faustus at
first despairs at the very idea of salvation.

  You might imagine how he feels after all those years of
denying God and serving Lucifer--all the favors he has had from
hell.  How can he back out of his bargain now?  "Hell claims its
right," a right which Faustus acknowledges.  And he will do hell
right by killing himself.

  NOTE:  ON SUICIDE Suicide is a mortal sin which will damn
Faustus just as surely as the expiration of his contract with
Lucifer.  As Faustus is well aware, hell is not at all fussy
about the manner in which it acquires his soul.

  Faustus reaches for the dagger which Mephistophilis--no
friendly spirit now--puts in his hand.  The Old Man intercedes.
He tells Faustus not to despair and to remember God's mercy.  He
points to the sky overhead.  Look, an angel hovers there, ready
to fill your soul with grace.  Faustus looks up.  Does he see an
angel too?  Or is the air vacant to his eyes?

  Whatever he sees, Faustus calms down and thanks his advisor
for his good counsel.  The Old Man shuffles off, leaving Faustus
to his conscience--and to Mephistophilis.

  The spirit is right there to threaten Faustus with torture if
he so much as thinks of repentance.  "Revolt," he orders Faustus
(he means from these thoughts of God), "or I'll in piecemeal
tear thy flesh." Courage has never been one of the scholar's
strong points, and he pales at the threat.  He urges
Mephistophilis to turn on the Old Man.  Torture him.  Him!  Not
me!  Faustus pleads.

  Mephistophilis shrugs his shoulders.  I can hurt the Old
Man's body, I suppose, but I can't touch his soul.  However,
anything to please.

  And may I have Helen?  Faustus asks, his thoughts abandoning
the grace he has been offered for the beautiful shade who has
just crossed the stage.  I'll be back with her, Mephistophilis
promises, "in a twinkling of an eye." (That phrase again
suggests a magician's sleight of hand, when the audience barely
blinks.) The caresses of the most beautiful woman in history
will be Faustus' last diversion and the final payment hell will
make for his soul.

  As Helen returns, Faustus greets her with a speech that makes
you wonder if she isn't worth the price:

  "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships

  And burnt the topless towers of Ilium [Troy]?"

  Did Helen cause the destruction of a city, the agonies of
war, the death of ancient heroes?  Who can doubt it?  For such
beauty as this, Troy was well lost.

  Helen dazzles Faustus.  Her radiance seems to bring tears to
his eyes, so that he describes not a woman but the shimmering
effect of light.  Helen outshines the evening stars.  She is
brighter than flaming Jove, the king of the gods, when he
dallied in the arms of nymphs whose very names (Semele and
Arethusa) sound like all the pleasures of love.

  "Sweet Helen," Faustus murmurs in ecstasy, "make me immortal
with a kiss." He moves to embrace her.  As Faustus kisses Helen,
he cries, "Her lips suck forth my soul!" Possibly this is a
lover's rhapsody, or a disturbing hint that Helen may be a
succuba (demon).

  NOTE:  A SUCCUBA A succuba was a demon spirit who assumed
human form to have intercourse with men.  Intercourse with
demons was an unpardonable sin in the eyes of the church.  If
Helen is a succuba, then Faustus, by claiming her as his lover,
is beyond redemption.  When he says, "Her lips suck forth my
soul!" he is being quite literal.  That's just what her lips are
doing.

  The Old Man, who has been watching this romantic interlude
from the wings, hurls damnation at Faustus like an Old Testament
prophet.  He is set upon by devils.  Torture is the test of his
faith which he passes with flying colors.  Heaven opens its
gates to welcome him.

  Faustus sweeps Helen off stage in his arms.  At best, he has
chosen worldly beauty over other-worldly grace.  At worst, he
holds a creature whose fairness disguises an ugly moral reality.
As the Old Man enters heaven by the straight and narrow gate,
Faustus takes the primrose path to hell.

  Yet, you should ask yourself how deeply you quarrel with
Faustus' choice.  Suppose a religious advisor warned you against
a passion for the loveliest woman or the handsomest man in the
world.  What would you do about it?

  Admittedly, Faustus doesn't love Helen in any meaningful
sense.  He is infatuated with physical looks.  But is Faustus'
response to Helen a sign of gross physical appetite--or of a
moving sensitivity to beauty?  That's an important question
because whichever it is, it's what damns Faustus in the end.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT V, SCENE II

  In the 1616 text, Lucifer and Belzebub enter to watch
Faustus' final hours.  They stand on a balcony above the stage,
looking down at the scene to come.  The two princes of hell make
a suggestive picture.  The devils are on top of the world,
running the show.

  Faustus comes from his study, where he has completed a new
will.  The scholars of Wittenberg greet him with concern.  They
have come expecting the usual food and good cheer.  Instead,
they find a white-faced Faustus, the somber testament of a will
in his hand.

  Are you sick?  they ask Faustus.  Maybe it's only a bit of
indigestion, one scholar suggests.  ("Surfeit," the word he
uses, means overindulgence of the appetite.  Not a bad diagnosis
of Faustus' trouble.)

  Part of Faustus yearns toward these companions.  "Ah, my
sweet chamber-fellow," he turns to one of them who, years ago,
shared his dormitory.  "Had I lived with thee"--had I stayed
with the common herd of scholars--"then had I lived still."

  But part of Faustus insists on isolation, exclusivity.  He
takes a certain pride in the enormity of his sin.  The serpent
who tempted Eve may be forgiven, he says, but not Faustus.  The
magician will be great to the last, if great only in his
offense.

  The scholars give Faustus the usual advice.  Pray, man.  Turn
to God.  But these are really just platitudes.  The scholars
lack the wisdom to rise to the occasion.  Finally, they withdraw
into the next room, leaving Faustus alone to die.  As in the
morality plays, the friends of Everyman abandon him on the path
to the grave.

  In the 1616 text, there is a last exchange between Faustus
and Mephistophilis.  Faustus accuses the spirit of having put
temptation in his way.  "Bewitching fiend," he cries.  "You're
the one who's robbed me of paradise."

  Faustus made this accusation once before (see II, iii), and
Mephistophilis had denied it.  But now the spirit freely admits
the charge.  Yes, it was all my doing, Faustus.  And one of my
most brilliant jobs.  You almost slipped away from me while you
were reading the Bible.  But I made sure you found no hope
there.  (Remember those two Biblical passages which, when read
together, seemed to prove to Faustus that he was doomed?
Mephistophilis is saying he made sure Faustus read those
passages back-to-back.)

  This is quite an admission on the spirit's part.  And for
some readers, it casts long shadows over the play.  If
Mephistophilis stood unseen (and as yet unsummoned) at Faustus'
elbow, turning the leaves of the Bible, who knows what other
nasty tricks he has played?  Switched a succuba for the shade of
Helen, no doubt.  Perhaps even sent Valdes and Cornelius to
call.  Is Faustus responsible for any of his actions?  Or has he
been just a puppet all this time, with Mephistophilis pulling
the strings?

  To what degree, after all, has Faustus been in control of his
fate?  It's not an easy question.  You can cite plenty of
evidence in the play for free will.  The Old Man's warning, for
instance, makes sense only if Faustus is free to accept the
grace he is offered, free to choose the Old Man's way.  But you
can also argue that Faustus is right in his feeling that he's
been doomed all along.  Mephistophilis' speech points in this
direction.  So does Lucifer's unexpected arrival (II, ii), when
Faustus desperately calls on Christ.

  Still in the 1616 text, Faustus is now shown the heaven he
has forfeited and the hell he has earned.  As sweet music plays,
a heavenly throne descends toward the stage.  The Good Angel
appears and tells Faustus, Ah, if you had only listened to me,
there you would be seated like the saints in glory.

  The throne hovers above Faustus' head, within his vision, but
forever out of reach.  And now, a trap door on stage opens,
revealing hell.  The Evil Angel makes Faustus look down into the
burning pit, where grinning devils are torturing the damned.  As
Faustus turns away in horror, the clock strikes the eleventh
hour of Faustus' last day on earth.

  Faustus' final soliloquy runs fifty-nine lines, one for every
minute of the hour that remains.  Time is the subject of the
speech, as Faustus tries frantically to stop time or at least to
slow it down.  He calls to the stars to halt in the sky and to
the sun to rise again in the west, bringing back the precious
day.

  The poignant speech replays the heroic themes of Act I, only
this time in a sad minor key.  Faustus wanted to be a god, to
command "all things that move between the quiet poles." But the
stars wheel in the heavens now in response to far different
commands than his.  Faustus' cry of protest is grand, and
grandly futile.  Like every human being since Adam, Faustus
finds he is trapped in time.

  NOTE:  "RUN SLOWLY, SLOWLY..." A classicist to the last,
Faustus recalls a line from Ovid, the Latin love poet.  "O
lente, lente currite noctis equi." Run slowly, slowly, horses of
the night.  The line falls ironically in the midst of Faustus'
death scene, for the difference in Faustus' situation and the
original speaker's is great.  In Ovid's poem, the lover longs
for night to last so that he may continue to he in the arms of
his beloved.  Faustus, of course, wants the night to endure
because the sun will rise on the dawn of his torment.  The Latin
words sound like a last attempt to cast a spell.  But it doesn't
work.  if anything, the pace of time speeds up.  "The stars move
still, time runs, the clock will strike."

  Faustus has a vision.  Far off in the night sky, he sees the
streaming blood of Christ.  You remember when Faustus signed a
contract with the devil, his own blood refused to flow.  He
asked Mephistophilis, "Why streams it not?" And the spirit
brought coals to set it flowing afresh.  Christ's blood streams
in the heavens now as a sign of divine mercy, withheld from
Faustus because of his own denial of God.

  The clock strikes eleven-thirty.  The seconds are ticking
away much too fast.  And yet, time stretches away before Faustus
in that dizzyingly endless expanse we call eternity.  Faustus
will burn in hell a billion years--only the beginning of his
torment.  Faustus wanted immortality, and he has found it in an
unlooked-for way.

  The clock strikes midnight.  The thunder roars.  Leaping
devils come on stage to carry Faustus away.  Faustus makes his
final, frantic plea.  "I'll burn my books," cries this seeker of
forbidden knowledge.  Well, he will burn for them, at any rate.
And then a shriek, "Mephistophilis!" A cry for help?  An
accusation?  A shock of recognition?  Then Faustus disappears
through the trap door into the yawning mouth of hell.

  If you are reading the 1604 text, the play ends here.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ACT V, SCENE III

  After a dreadful night, a quiet morning dawns.  The scholars
find Faustus' torn body, and though they deplore his fate, they
honor his great learning.  Wittenberg will hold a stately
funeral.

  The Chorus returns for a final word.  He speaks like a
Christian moralist now.  The Chorus has severe qualms about all
this classic learning.  One has only to look at its effect on
Faustus.

  NOTE:  ON THE IMAGE OF THE BURNT LAUREL BOUGH The laurel was
the sacred tree of Apollo, the Greek god of intellect.  When the
Chorus says, "Burned is Apollo's laurel bough / That sometime
grew within this learned man," he means that Faustus, the avid
classicist, followed the classics too far.  Spurred on by the
freedom of ancient Greek thought, Faustus delved into knowledge
forbidden by the church.  As a result, he found the searing
Christian hell, never imagined by the Greeks.

  Let Faustus' fall be a lesson to everyone, the Chorus
continues, not to practice magic.  There is nothing wrong with
curiosity, but for God's sake, don't touch.

  The great disturbance at Wittenberg is over.  The scholars
return to their studies.  The professors give their everyday
lectures, unassisted by ghosts.  And peace returns to the
university.  Or does it?  Look again at the Chorus' last
words:

  Faustus is gone:  regard his hellish fall,

  Whose fiendful fortune may exhort the wise

  Only to wonder at unlawful things

  Whose deepness doth entice such forward wits

  To practice more than heavenly power permits.

  Faustus may be roasting in hell, but magic has lost none of
its appeal.  Its very deepness testifies to its enduring
fascination.

  The old men of Wittenberg may have won the day for now.  They
have succeeded, for the time being, in clamping down on the
questionable practice of wizardry.  But the "forward wits," the
young scholars, are still champing at the bit, waiting for their
chance to rush into necromancy.

  As long as young men have adventurous spirits, the university
hasn't heard the last of black magic.  Not by a long shot.

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ON FAUSTUS

  Proud Faustus is the most uneasy of men, the frailest
conqueror, the most sorrowful of atheists, uncertain of his
uncertainties.  Here indeed is the weak man, terror-stricken by
his own audacity, irresolute at the very moment when he boasts
of his inflexibility, hurling defiance at God and Devil, but
immediately mad with terror, choosing now the soul, now matter;
incapable of grasping the unity of the world, of making a
synthesis between this soul which he cannot repudiate and this
matter which imposes on him its laws.  He hopes, then renounces;
summons, then rejects; brags and trembles.

  -Henri Fluchere, Shakespeare

  and the Elizabethans, 1967

  If pity mixed with condemnation were the only feeling that
Marlowe's audience can have for Faustus, then he would still be
a poor sort of figure, tragic perhaps but only in a rather weak,
pathetic sort of way; an Edward II in fact.  But again the
experience of reading and seeing the play tells us quite plainly
that he is not that.  There are also a kind of strength and a
kind of attractiveness.  Both reside in the quality of his
imagination.  "Megalo-manical fantasy" is [the critic]
Kirschbaum's phrase for this imagination, and it is a fair
objective analysis of the "diseased ego," a "case" in the
psychologist's notebook:  but it is also remarkably deaf or
blind to the beauty of the lines in which the "case" expresses
himself.  Let us take the most famous speech of all, Faustus'
address to the spirit-Helen of Troy....  What is in the
foreground is poetry of exceptional radiance and beauty:
moreover, a fervour of spirit and responsiveness to the presence
of beauty that are powerful and infectious.

  -J.  B.  Steane, "Introduction" to

  Christopher Marlowe:  The Complete Plays, 1969

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ON FAUSTUS AND MEPHISTOPHILIS

  After the scholars have left, the mockery of Mephistophilis
administers a last turn of the screw:  "'Twas I, that when thou
wert i' the way to heaven, Damned up thy passage; when thou
tookst the book To view the scriptures, then I turned the leaves
And led thine eye." Faustus weeps.  It is a terrifying speech,
recoiling on our whole experience of the play.  But without it
the exploration of the mystery of evil would not be complete; it
is the dramatic equivalent of the gospel's equally disturbing,
"Then entered Satan into Judas." From one point of view the
play's devils are only symbols of "aspiring pride and
insolence," and it is simply Faustus's wilful pride that turned
the leaves and led his eye.

  -J.  P.  Brockbank, Marlowe:  Dr.  Faustus, 1962

  Faustus has in Mephistophilis an alter ego who is both a
demon and a Damon.  The man has an extraordinary affection for
the spirit, the spirit a mysterious attraction to the man.
Mephistophilis should not be confused with Goethe's sardonic
nay-sayer; neither is he an operatic villain nor a Satanic
tempter.  He proffers no tempting speeches and dangles no
enticements; Faustus tempts himself and succumbs to temptations
which he alone has conjured up.  What Mephistophilis really
approximates, with his subtle insight and his profound sympathy,
is the characterization of Porfiry, the examining magistrate in
Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment.

  The dialogues between Faustus and Mephistophilis resemble
those cat-and-mouse interrogations in which Porfiry teaches the
would-be criminal, Raskolnikov, to accuse and convict himself.

  -Harry Levin, The Overreacher, 1964

^^^^^^^^^^
DOCTOR FAUSTUS:  ON THE MESSAGE OF THE PLAY

  If he had lived longer, perhaps Marlowe might have written a
play of true Christian affirmation, but he did not do so in
Doctor Faustus...  though in that play, he seemed to be moving
closer than ever to traditional Christianity.

  -Ronald Ribner, "Marlowe's 'Tragicke Glasse,'" 1961

  No doubt, he (Marlowe) yearns all the more avidly with
Faustus, but with Faustus he condemns himself; the Good Angel
and the Old Man are at liberty, while Mephistophilis is in
perpetual fetter.  Yet, it is just at this point that Marlowe
abandons his preoccupation with unfettered soaring, and seems to
submit himself to ideas of durance, torment, and constraint.  If
he is imaginatively identified with any character, it is no
longer Faustus; it is Mephistophilis, who suffers with Faustus
like a second self yet also plays the cosmic ironist, wise in
his guilty knowledge and powerful in his defeated rebellion.

  -Harry Levin, The Overreacher, 1964

  THE END